第 16 章
处于其濒死挣扎的最后关头。福卡斯的残暴统治提供了一个外部机会,使晚期罗马时代的国家与社会缓慢解体的过程在最后的打击下最终完成。
帝国陷于革命狂乱之中,这导致了失控的残暴统治,同时伴随着激烈的内部争斗。被废黜的皇帝莫里斯亲眼目睹其子被砍头后,也被处死,而后接着一场无需辨别的大屠杀,专门针对势力最显赫的家族成员,以便提前防止他们的反叛。对这场滥杀无辜的杀戮,贵族报以一连串yīn谋反叛活动,所有这些反叛又导致进一步的杀戮。福卡斯的行动只得到了一小部分人的支持。6世纪末,君士坦丁堡和罗马之间的争论bào发为激烈的争吵,因为格里高利一世强烈抗议君士坦丁堡大教长使用“普世的大教长”这一称号,而后者使用这个称号已有百年了。[132]莫里斯对这个抗议报以相当冷淡的态度,而福卡斯则相反,他早就准备接受抗议了。他对罗马主教的和解政策非常明显地表现在他发给卜尼法斯三世的诏令中,即公开承认罗马圣彼得使徒教堂是所有基督教教堂之首。[133]罗马广场上树立的一根石柱上刻有赞扬这位拜占廷独裁者的铭文,表明福卡斯在罗马受到何等青睐。而在拜占廷帝国,他却越来越遭到人们憎恨,特别是在近东地区,其支持正统基督教的政策充分表现在对一xìng论教徒和犹太人的无情迫害上。内部斗争与日俱增,内讧越发激烈。最初支持他的绿党现在转而激烈反对他,而他们的成员被完全禁止担任任何公职,[134]蓝党则大力支持其残暴统治。两党间的冲突此时呈现白热化,内战的烈火在帝国各地蔓延。[135]
在这万分痛苦的灾难时刻,前些年极力避免的残酷战争却在帝国bào发出来。在巴尔干半岛和亚洲,军队完全崩溃。波斯国王侯斯罗埃斯二世(Chosroes II)为被杀害的莫里斯复仇,并沉重打击了拜占廷军队。帝国此时已经被内战搅得心力憔悴,它既没有力量也缺乏意志保护自己。最初,它似乎也确实做了一下抵抗,但是惨败接连不断。波斯军队攻破了边境防线,于605年占领了达拉要塞,旋即挺进小亚细亚本土,夺取了恺撒利亚。波斯军队甚至兵抵察尔西顿。同时,一大批斯拉夫人和阿瓦尔人散布到整个巴尔干半岛,尽管福卡斯于604年试图通过提高支付给他们的贡金赎买他们离开。[136]整个巴尔干半岛很快遭到彻底蹂躏,帝国似乎面临解体的时刻。
危机形势由于外地军队的积极行动而得到缓解。迦太基总督伊拉克略起兵反叛福卡斯的独裁统治,当埃及宣布与之共命运以后,他派遣一支舰队在其同名的儿子伊拉克略统率下进军君士坦丁堡。该舰队一路上攻城拔寨,占领了多个岛屿和港口,年轻的伊拉克略受到民众的热烈欢迎,特别是受到绿62党的拥护。610年10月3日,其舰队出现在君士坦丁堡城下。在这里,他像救世主一样受到民众欢呼,而后便迅速结束了福卡斯的血腥独裁统治。10月5日,他从大教长手中接过皇冠。[137]被废黑出的独裁君主被处决后,他那耸立在大竞技场里的雕像被推倒,并被当作人民公敌的象征被公开焚烧,蓝党的党派颜色标志也同时被投入熊熊大火。[138]
福卡斯统治下的无政府时期,成为晚期罗马帝国历史的最后一个阶段。在此阶段,古代帝国最终灭亡,而晚期罗马帝国阶段,或早期拜占廷帝国阶段也终告结束。拜占廷帝国从这场危机进入了一个完全不同的阶段,它得以抛弃垂死的政治生活遗产,吸取全新的充满生机和活力的资源。拜占廷的历史,正确地说是中世纪希腊帝国的历史由此拉开了序幕。
【注释】
[1]Cf.Moravcsik,Byzantinoturcica I,165 ff.,for a most instructive analysis of the characteristics of Byzantine sources.
[2]ed.E.Schwartz and T.Mommsen,3 vols.,Leipzig 1903-9;small edition by E.Schwartz,Leipzig 1914.Cf.also the notes by E.Schwartz,PW 6(1907),1370 ff.
[3]ed.I.A.Heikel,Leipzig 1902.H.Grégoire,B 13(1938),561 ff.,has questioned the authenticity of the Vita and thinks that at any rate the material was worked over and interpolations made at the end of the fourth century.Most scholars reject this thesis.Cf.the forceful counter-argcomnts by N.H.Baynes,BZ 39(1939),46 ff.;J.Vogt,‘Berichteüber Kreuzeserscheinungen aus dem 4.Jh.n.Chr.’,Mélanges Grégoire I(1949),593 ff.and Constantin der Grosse und sein Jahrhundert(1949),164 ff.;A.Piganiol,‘Sur quelques passages de la Vita Constantini’,Mélanges Grégoire Ⅱ(1950),513 ff.,and Empire Chrétien,p.xiii;H.Dorries,Das Selbstzeugnis Kaiser Konstantins,Abh.d.Akad.d.Wiss.zu Gottingen,Phil-hist Kl.,Ⅲ Folge,No.34(1954);A.H.M.Jones,‘Notes on the Genuineness of the Constantinian Doccomnts in Eusebius’Life of Constantine,Journ.Eccl.Hist.5(1954),196 ff.;J.Moreau,‘Zum Problem der Vita Constantini’,Historia 4(1953),234 ff.;K.Aland,‘Die religiose Haltung Kaiser Konstantins’,Studia Patristica Ⅰ(1957),549 ff.On the other hand,Grégoire’s thesis is supported by P.Orgels,‘A propos des erreurs historiques de la Vita Constantini’,Mélanges Grégoire Ⅳ(1953),575 ff.
[4]ed.C.Clark,Berlin 1910,1915.
[5]Müller,FHG Ⅳ,7-56.Cf.also Excerpta de legationibus,ed.C.de Boor(1903),591-9.
[6]Müller,FHG Ⅳ,57-68.
[7]ed.L.Mendelssohn,Leipzig 1887.
[8]Müller,FHG IV,69-100;V,24-6.Excerpta de legationibus,ed.C.de Boor(1903),121-255,575-91.
[9]Migne,PG 67,28-842.
[10]Migne,PG 67,843-1630.
[11]ed.L.Pacomntier,Leipzig 1911.
[12]ed.J.Bidez and L.Pacomntier,London 1898.
[13]Trans.J.M.Schonfelder,Munich 1862 and R.P.Smith,Oxford 1860.A new edition of the third and most important part of this work,with a Latin translation,is given by Brooks,Corpus Script.Christ.Or.Scriptores Syri,Series Ⅱ,t.Ⅲ.1935,1936(inaccessible tocom).Cf.the great monograph by A.P.Djakonov,Ioann Efesskij i ego cerkovno-istoriсěsfie trudy(John of Ephesus and his Ecclesiastical History),St.Petersburg,1908,and idem‘Izvestija Joanna Efesskogo i sirijskich chronik o slavjanach Ⅵ-Ⅶ vv.’,(Account of the Slavs in the sixth and seventh centuries in John of Ephesus and the syriac chronicles),Vestnik drevnej istorii 1946,Ⅰ,20 ff.
[14]Complete edition in Mansi.For the Councils of Ephesus and Chalcedon there is the new critical edition by E.Schwartz,Acta conciliorum oeccomnicorum vol.I,fasc.1-5(1922-30);vol.II,fasc.1-6(1922-30);vol.II,fasc.1-4(1933-6)。
[15]ed.J.Bidez and F.Cumont,Paris 1922,1924.
[16]ed.L.Dindorf,Leipzig 1832.
[17]ed.R.Forster,Leipzig 1903-27.
[18]Migne,PG 66,1053-1616;French translation of thewith a cocomntary,C.Lacombrade,Le Discours sur la Royautéde Synésios Cyrène à l’empéreur Arcadios,Paris 1951.For the work and the personality of this great rhetorician,cf.idem,Synésios de Cyrène,Hellène et Chrétien,Paris 1951.
[19]ed.J.Haury,Leipzig 1905,1906,1913.
[20]On Procopius and his writings see the detailed study by B.Rubin,Prokopios von Kaisareia,Stuttgart1954(=RE,XXII,2),in which all the earlier literature is listed.See also the bibliography in Moravcsik,Byzantinoturcica Ⅰ,496-500.
[21]ed.B.G.Niebuhr in CB.A Russian translation with a detailed introduction is given in M.V.Levcenko,Agafij.O carstrovanii Justiniana(Agathias,On the reign of Justinian),Moscow-Leningrad 1953.
[22]Müller,FHG IV,220-69.Excerpta de legationibus,ed.C.de Boor(1903),170-221,442-77.
[23]ed.C.de Boor,Leipzig 1887.Russian translation:Feofilakt Simokatta,Istorija,Moscow 1957.
[24]Unless otherwise indicated,the Bonn Corpus of Byzantine historians(CB)is used.
[25]Müller,FHG IV,535-622;V,27-38.
[26]ed.T.Mommsen and P.M.Meyer,I,1,2,Ⅱ,Berlin 1905;trans.C.Pharr,Princeton 1952.
[27]Institutiones.Digesta,ed.P.Krüger,1911;Ⅱ:Codex Justinianus,ed.P.Krüger,1906;Novellae,ed R.Scholl-G.Kroll,1912
[28]ed.O.Seeck,Berlin 1876.
[29]ed.R.Wünsch,Leipzig 1903.On the dating of the work see Stein,Bas-Empire,729 ff.,838 ff.
[30]Cf.Stein,Bas-Empire,723 ff.
[31]The only complete edition of this important work is by J.Scheffer,Upsala 1664.On the much disputed question of its date see Moravcsik,Byzantinoturcica Ⅰ,417 ff.and Vizantiski izvori Ⅰ,128.
[32]Cf.N.H.Baynes The Hellenistic Civilization and East Rcom,O.U.P.1946(reprinted in Byzantine Studies,pp.I ff.).On the hellenistic tradition of culture and education cf.the penetrating cocomnts of R.J.H.Jenkins,Byzantium and Byzantinism.Lectures in Memory of Louise Taft Semple,The University of Cincinnati 1963,pp.8 ff.
[33]Cf.F.Dolger,‘Rom in der Gedankenwelt der Byzantiner’,Zeitschr.f.Kirchengesch.56(1937),I ff.;reprinted in Dolger,Byzanz,70 ff.
[34]Cf.G.Ostrogorsky,‘Die byzantinische Staatenhierarchie’,Sem.Kond.8(1936),41 ff.;also F.Dolger,‘Die“Familie der Konige”im Mittelalter’,Hist,Jb.60(1940),397-420;reprinted in Dolger,Byzanz,34 ff.
[35]Cf.Rostovtzeff,Wirtschaft und Gesellschaft Ⅱ,238 ff.;A.H.M.Jones,The Greek City from Alexander to Justinian,Oxford 1940,85 ff.;and more recently H.Bengtson,Griechische Geschichte,2nd ed.Munich 1960,534 ff.,especially 542 ff.
[36]Cf.Bury,Constitution,5 ff.
[37]Cf.A.Alfoldi,‘Die Ausgestaltung des monarchischen Zeremoniells am romischen Kaiserhofe’,Mitt.d.Deutschen Archaol.Inst.,Rom.Abt.49(1934),1-118,and‘Insignien und Tracht der romischen Kaiser’,ibid.50(1935),1-171;Treitinger,Kaiseridee;cf.also the short summary:‘Vom ostromischen Staats-und Kaisergedanken’,Leipziger Vierteljahrschr.f.Südosteuropa 4(1940),1 ff.;Graber,Empereur;F.Dolger,‘Die Kaiserurkunde der Byzantiner als Ausdruck ihrer politischen Anschauungen’,HZ 159(1939),234 ff.(reprinted in Dolger,Byzanz);J.Straub,Vom Herrscherideal in der Spatantike,Stuttgart 1939;W.Ensslin,‘Gottkaiser und Kaiser von Gottes Gnaden’,S.B.d.Bayer.Akad.d.Wissensch.1943,vol.6,Munich 1943;idem,‘Das Gottesgnadentum des autokratischen Kaisertums der frühbyzantinischen Zeit’,Studi biz.e neoell.5(1939),154 ff.;Bréhier,Institutions,52 ff.
[38]Alfoldi,op.cit.;Treitinger,Kaiseridee.
[39]Direct influences from the East were,however,of secondary importance;they were never determining factors in Byzantine civilization,unlike Roman,Hellenistic and Christian influences which not only moulded Byzantine develocomnt throughout,but were basic elcomnts in its original make-up.It is impossible to assess rightly the individual quality and subtlety of Byzantine develocomnt if it is designated,as often happens,as a process of‘orientalization’,as though Byzantium was simply an‘oriental’state.My stand in the first edition of my book against this widespread view gave a number o
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帝国陷于革命狂乱之中,这导致了失控的残暴统治,同时伴随着激烈的内部争斗。被废黜的皇帝莫里斯亲眼目睹其子被砍头后,也被处死,而后接着一场无需辨别的大屠杀,专门针对势力最显赫的家族成员,以便提前防止他们的反叛。对这场滥杀无辜的杀戮,贵族报以一连串yīn谋反叛活动,所有这些反叛又导致进一步的杀戮。福卡斯的行动只得到了一小部分人的支持。6世纪末,君士坦丁堡和罗马之间的争论bào发为激烈的争吵,因为格里高利一世强烈抗议君士坦丁堡大教长使用“普世的大教长”这一称号,而后者使用这个称号已有百年了。[132]莫里斯对这个抗议报以相当冷淡的态度,而福卡斯则相反,他早就准备接受抗议了。他对罗马主教的和解政策非常明显地表现在他发给卜尼法斯三世的诏令中,即公开承认罗马圣彼得使徒教堂是所有基督教教堂之首。[133]罗马广场上树立的一根石柱上刻有赞扬这位拜占廷独裁者的铭文,表明福卡斯在罗马受到何等青睐。而在拜占廷帝国,他却越来越遭到人们憎恨,特别是在近东地区,其支持正统基督教的政策充分表现在对一xìng论教徒和犹太人的无情迫害上。内部斗争与日俱增,内讧越发激烈。最初支持他的绿党现在转而激烈反对他,而他们的成员被完全禁止担任任何公职,[134]蓝党则大力支持其残暴统治。两党间的冲突此时呈现白热化,内战的烈火在帝国各地蔓延。[135]
在这万分痛苦的灾难时刻,前些年极力避免的残酷战争却在帝国bào发出来。在巴尔干半岛和亚洲,军队完全崩溃。波斯国王侯斯罗埃斯二世(Chosroes II)为被杀害的莫里斯复仇,并沉重打击了拜占廷军队。帝国此时已经被内战搅得心力憔悴,它既没有力量也缺乏意志保护自己。最初,它似乎也确实做了一下抵抗,但是惨败接连不断。波斯军队攻破了边境防线,于605年占领了达拉要塞,旋即挺进小亚细亚本土,夺取了恺撒利亚。波斯军队甚至兵抵察尔西顿。同时,一大批斯拉夫人和阿瓦尔人散布到整个巴尔干半岛,尽管福卡斯于604年试图通过提高支付给他们的贡金赎买他们离开。[136]整个巴尔干半岛很快遭到彻底蹂躏,帝国似乎面临解体的时刻。
危机形势由于外地军队的积极行动而得到缓解。迦太基总督伊拉克略起兵反叛福卡斯的独裁统治,当埃及宣布与之共命运以后,他派遣一支舰队在其同名的儿子伊拉克略统率下进军君士坦丁堡。该舰队一路上攻城拔寨,占领了多个岛屿和港口,年轻的伊拉克略受到民众的热烈欢迎,特别是受到绿62党的拥护。610年10月3日,其舰队出现在君士坦丁堡城下。在这里,他像救世主一样受到民众欢呼,而后便迅速结束了福卡斯的血腥独裁统治。10月5日,他从大教长手中接过皇冠。[137]被废黑出的独裁君主被处决后,他那耸立在大竞技场里的雕像被推倒,并被当作人民公敌的象征被公开焚烧,蓝党的党派颜色标志也同时被投入熊熊大火。[138]
福卡斯统治下的无政府时期,成为晚期罗马帝国历史的最后一个阶段。在此阶段,古代帝国最终灭亡,而晚期罗马帝国阶段,或早期拜占廷帝国阶段也终告结束。拜占廷帝国从这场危机进入了一个完全不同的阶段,它得以抛弃垂死的政治生活遗产,吸取全新的充满生机和活力的资源。拜占廷的历史,正确地说是中世纪希腊帝国的历史由此拉开了序幕。
【注释】
[1]Cf.Moravcsik,Byzantinoturcica I,165 ff.,for a most instructive analysis of the characteristics of Byzantine sources.
[2]ed.E.Schwartz and T.Mommsen,3 vols.,Leipzig 1903-9;small edition by E.Schwartz,Leipzig 1914.Cf.also the notes by E.Schwartz,PW 6(1907),1370 ff.
[3]ed.I.A.Heikel,Leipzig 1902.H.Grégoire,B 13(1938),561 ff.,has questioned the authenticity of the Vita and thinks that at any rate the material was worked over and interpolations made at the end of the fourth century.Most scholars reject this thesis.Cf.the forceful counter-argcomnts by N.H.Baynes,BZ 39(1939),46 ff.;J.Vogt,‘Berichteüber Kreuzeserscheinungen aus dem 4.Jh.n.Chr.’,Mélanges Grégoire I(1949),593 ff.and Constantin der Grosse und sein Jahrhundert(1949),164 ff.;A.Piganiol,‘Sur quelques passages de la Vita Constantini’,Mélanges Grégoire Ⅱ(1950),513 ff.,and Empire Chrétien,p.xiii;H.Dorries,Das Selbstzeugnis Kaiser Konstantins,Abh.d.Akad.d.Wiss.zu Gottingen,Phil-hist Kl.,Ⅲ Folge,No.34(1954);A.H.M.Jones,‘Notes on the Genuineness of the Constantinian Doccomnts in Eusebius’Life of Constantine,Journ.Eccl.Hist.5(1954),196 ff.;J.Moreau,‘Zum Problem der Vita Constantini’,Historia 4(1953),234 ff.;K.Aland,‘Die religiose Haltung Kaiser Konstantins’,Studia Patristica Ⅰ(1957),549 ff.On the other hand,Grégoire’s thesis is supported by P.Orgels,‘A propos des erreurs historiques de la Vita Constantini’,Mélanges Grégoire Ⅳ(1953),575 ff.
[4]ed.C.Clark,Berlin 1910,1915.
[5]Müller,FHG Ⅳ,7-56.Cf.also Excerpta de legationibus,ed.C.de Boor(1903),591-9.
[6]Müller,FHG Ⅳ,57-68.
[7]ed.L.Mendelssohn,Leipzig 1887.
[8]Müller,FHG IV,69-100;V,24-6.Excerpta de legationibus,ed.C.de Boor(1903),121-255,575-91.
[9]Migne,PG 67,28-842.
[10]Migne,PG 67,843-1630.
[11]ed.L.Pacomntier,Leipzig 1911.
[12]ed.J.Bidez and L.Pacomntier,London 1898.
[13]Trans.J.M.Schonfelder,Munich 1862 and R.P.Smith,Oxford 1860.A new edition of the third and most important part of this work,with a Latin translation,is given by Brooks,Corpus Script.Christ.Or.Scriptores Syri,Series Ⅱ,t.Ⅲ.1935,1936(inaccessible tocom).Cf.the great monograph by A.P.Djakonov,Ioann Efesskij i ego cerkovno-istoriсěsfie trudy(John of Ephesus and his Ecclesiastical History),St.Petersburg,1908,and idem‘Izvestija Joanna Efesskogo i sirijskich chronik o slavjanach Ⅵ-Ⅶ vv.’,(Account of the Slavs in the sixth and seventh centuries in John of Ephesus and the syriac chronicles),Vestnik drevnej istorii 1946,Ⅰ,20 ff.
[14]Complete edition in Mansi.For the Councils of Ephesus and Chalcedon there is the new critical edition by E.Schwartz,Acta conciliorum oeccomnicorum vol.I,fasc.1-5(1922-30);vol.II,fasc.1-6(1922-30);vol.II,fasc.1-4(1933-6)。
[15]ed.J.Bidez and F.Cumont,Paris 1922,1924.
[16]ed.L.Dindorf,Leipzig 1832.
[17]ed.R.Forster,Leipzig 1903-27.
[18]Migne,PG 66,1053-1616;French translation of thewith a cocomntary,C.Lacombrade,Le Discours sur la Royautéde Synésios Cyrène à l’empéreur Arcadios,Paris 1951.For the work and the personality of this great rhetorician,cf.idem,Synésios de Cyrène,Hellène et Chrétien,Paris 1951.
[19]ed.J.Haury,Leipzig 1905,1906,1913.
[20]On Procopius and his writings see the detailed study by B.Rubin,Prokopios von Kaisareia,Stuttgart1954(=RE,XXII,2),in which all the earlier literature is listed.See also the bibliography in Moravcsik,Byzantinoturcica Ⅰ,496-500.
[21]ed.B.G.Niebuhr in CB.A Russian translation with a detailed introduction is given in M.V.Levcenko,Agafij.O carstrovanii Justiniana(Agathias,On the reign of Justinian),Moscow-Leningrad 1953.
[22]Müller,FHG IV,220-69.Excerpta de legationibus,ed.C.de Boor(1903),170-221,442-77.
[23]ed.C.de Boor,Leipzig 1887.Russian translation:Feofilakt Simokatta,Istorija,Moscow 1957.
[24]Unless otherwise indicated,the Bonn Corpus of Byzantine historians(CB)is used.
[25]Müller,FHG IV,535-622;V,27-38.
[26]ed.T.Mommsen and P.M.Meyer,I,1,2,Ⅱ,Berlin 1905;trans.C.Pharr,Princeton 1952.
[27]Institutiones.Digesta,ed.P.Krüger,1911;Ⅱ:Codex Justinianus,ed.P.Krüger,1906;Novellae,ed R.Scholl-G.Kroll,1912
[28]ed.O.Seeck,Berlin 1876.
[29]ed.R.Wünsch,Leipzig 1903.On the dating of the work see Stein,Bas-Empire,729 ff.,838 ff.
[30]Cf.Stein,Bas-Empire,723 ff.
[31]The only complete edition of this important work is by J.Scheffer,Upsala 1664.On the much disputed question of its date see Moravcsik,Byzantinoturcica Ⅰ,417 ff.and Vizantiski izvori Ⅰ,128.
[32]Cf.N.H.Baynes The Hellenistic Civilization and East Rcom,O.U.P.1946(reprinted in Byzantine Studies,pp.I ff.).On the hellenistic tradition of culture and education cf.the penetrating cocomnts of R.J.H.Jenkins,Byzantium and Byzantinism.Lectures in Memory of Louise Taft Semple,The University of Cincinnati 1963,pp.8 ff.
[33]Cf.F.Dolger,‘Rom in der Gedankenwelt der Byzantiner’,Zeitschr.f.Kirchengesch.56(1937),I ff.;reprinted in Dolger,Byzanz,70 ff.
[34]Cf.G.Ostrogorsky,‘Die byzantinische Staatenhierarchie’,Sem.Kond.8(1936),41 ff.;also F.Dolger,‘Die“Familie der Konige”im Mittelalter’,Hist,Jb.60(1940),397-420;reprinted in Dolger,Byzanz,34 ff.
[35]Cf.Rostovtzeff,Wirtschaft und Gesellschaft Ⅱ,238 ff.;A.H.M.Jones,The Greek City from Alexander to Justinian,Oxford 1940,85 ff.;and more recently H.Bengtson,Griechische Geschichte,2nd ed.Munich 1960,534 ff.,especially 542 ff.
[36]Cf.Bury,Constitution,5 ff.
[37]Cf.A.Alfoldi,‘Die Ausgestaltung des monarchischen Zeremoniells am romischen Kaiserhofe’,Mitt.d.Deutschen Archaol.Inst.,Rom.Abt.49(1934),1-118,and‘Insignien und Tracht der romischen Kaiser’,ibid.50(1935),1-171;Treitinger,Kaiseridee;cf.also the short summary:‘Vom ostromischen Staats-und Kaisergedanken’,Leipziger Vierteljahrschr.f.Südosteuropa 4(1940),1 ff.;Graber,Empereur;F.Dolger,‘Die Kaiserurkunde der Byzantiner als Ausdruck ihrer politischen Anschauungen’,HZ 159(1939),234 ff.(reprinted in Dolger,Byzanz);J.Straub,Vom Herrscherideal in der Spatantike,Stuttgart 1939;W.Ensslin,‘Gottkaiser und Kaiser von Gottes Gnaden’,S.B.d.Bayer.Akad.d.Wissensch.1943,vol.6,Munich 1943;idem,‘Das Gottesgnadentum des autokratischen Kaisertums der frühbyzantinischen Zeit’,Studi biz.e neoell.5(1939),154 ff.;Bréhier,Institutions,52 ff.
[38]Alfoldi,op.cit.;Treitinger,Kaiseridee.
[39]Direct influences from the East were,however,of secondary importance;they were never determining factors in Byzantine civilization,unlike Roman,Hellenistic and Christian influences which not only moulded Byzantine develocomnt throughout,but were basic elcomnts in its original make-up.It is impossible to assess rightly the individual quality and subtlety of Byzantine develocomnt if it is designated,as often happens,as a process of‘orientalization’,as though Byzantium was simply an‘oriental’state.My stand in the first edition of my book against this widespread view gave a number o
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