25 DARWIN’S SINGULAR NOTION
IEsummerorearlyautumnof1859,WhitwellElwioroftherespectedBritishjournaltheQuarterlyReview,wassentanadvancecopyofanewbookbythenaturalistCharlesDarwin.Elwihebookwithiandagreedthatithadmerit,butfearedthatthesubjectmatterwastoonarrowtoattractawideaudience.HeurgedDarwintowriteabookaboutpigeonsinstead.“Everyoneisiedinpigeons,”heobservedhelpfully.
Elwin’ssageadvicewasignored,andOntheinofSpeciesbyMeansofNaturalSele,orthePreservationofFavouredRatheStruggleforLifeublishedinlateNovember1859,pricedatfifteenshillings.Thefirsteditionof1,250copiessoldoutonthefirstday.Ithasneverbeenoutofprint,andscarcelyoutoftroversy,inallthetimesibadgoingforamanwhoseprincipalotheriwasearthwormsandwho,butforasingleimpetuousdecisiontosailaroundtheworld,wouldveryprobablyhavepassedhislifeasananonymoustryparsonknownfor,well,foraihworms.
CharlesRobertDarwinwasbornonFebruary12,1809,1inShrewsbury,asedatemarkettowniMidlandsofEngland.Hisfatherrosperousandwell-regardedphysi.Hismother,whodiedwhenCharleswaso,wasthedaughterofJosiahWedgwood,ofpotteryfame.
Darwinenjoyedeveryadvantageofupbringing,buttinuallypainedhiswidowedfatherwithhislacklusteracademicperformance.“Youcarefornothingbutshooting,dogs,andrat-catg,andyouwillbeadisgracetoyourselfandallyourfamily,”hisfatherwroteinalinearlyalearsjustabouthereinanyreviewofDarwin’searlylife.Althoughhisinationwastonaturalhistory,forhisfather’ssakehetriedtostudymedieatEdinburghUybutcouldhebloodandsuffering.Theexperienceofwitnessingaiononaandablydistressedchild—thiswasinthedaysbeforeahetics,ofcourse—lefthimpermalytraumatized.Hetriedlawinstead,butfoundthatinsupportablydullandfinallymanaged,moreorlessbydefault,toacquireadegreeindivinityfromCambridge.
Alifeinaruralvicarageseemedtoawaithimwhenfromoutofthebluetherecameamoretemptingoffer.DarwinwasiosailonthenavalsurveyshipHMSBeagle,essentiallyasdinnerpanyforthecaptain,RobertFitzRoy,whoserankprecludedhissocializingwithaherthaleman.FitzRoy,whowasveryodd,choseDarwininpartbecausehelikedtheshapeofDarwin’sbetokehofcharacter,hebelieved.)DarwinwasnotFitzRoy’sfirstchoice,butgotthenodwhenFitzRoy’spreferredpaniondroppedout.
Fromatwenty-first-turyperspectivethetwomen’smoststrikingjoiurewastheir1Anauspiciousdateinhistory:onthesamedayiucky,AbrahamLinwasborn.
extremeyouthfulness.Atthetimeofsailing,FitzRoywasonlytwenty-three,Darwinjusttwenty-two.
FitzRoy’sformalassigwastochartcoastalwaters,buthishobby—passionreally—wastoseekoutevidenceforaliteral,bibliterpretationofcreation.ThatDarwinwastrainedfortheministrywastraltoFitzRoy’sdecisiontohavehimaboard.ThatDarwinsubsequentlyprovedtobenotonlyliberalofviewbutlessthanwholeheartedlydevotedtoChristianfualsbecameasourceoflastingfribetweenthem.
Darwin’stimeaboardHMSBeagle,from1831to1836,wasobviouslytheformativeexperienceofhislife,butalsoohem.Heandhiscaptainsharedasmall,whi’thavebeeneasyasFitzRoywassubjecttofitsoffuryfollowedbyspellsofsimmeriment.HeandDarwinstantlyengagedinquarrels,some“boninsanity,”asDarwinlaterrecalled.Ovoyagesteobeelancholyuakingsatthebestoftimes—thepreviouscaptainoftheBeaglehadputabulletthroughhisbrainduringamomentoflonelygloom—andFitzRoycamefromafamilywellknownforadepressiveinstinct.Hisuncle,VistCastlereagh,hadslithisthroatthepreviousdecadewhileservingascelloroftheExchequer.(FitzRoywouldhimselfitsuicidebythesamemethodin1865.)Eveninhiscalmermoods,FitzRoyprovedstrangelyunknowable.
DarwinwasastouolearnupontheclusionoftheirvoyagethatalmostatozRoymarriedayoungwomantowhomhehadlorothed.InfiveyearsinDarwin’spany,hehadnotoedatanattatoreveionedhername.
Iherrespect,however,theBeaglevoyagewasatriumph.Darwinexperiencedadventureenoughtolastalifetimeandaccumulatedahoardofspessuffittomakehisreputationandkeephimoccupiedforyears.Hefoundamagnifittroveofgiantafossils,includingthefiMegatheriumknowntodate;survivedalethalearthquakeinChile;discoveredanewspeciesofdolphin(whichhedutifullynamedDelphinusfitzroyi);ducteddiligentandusefulgeologivestigationsthroughouttheAndes;anddevelopedanewandmuch-admiredtheoryfortheformationofcoralatolls,whichsuggested,nottally,thatatollscouldnotformihanamillionyears—thefirsthintofhislong-standingattattotheextremeantiquityofearthlyprocesses.In1836,agedtwenty-seveurnedhomeafterbeingawayforfiveyearsandtwodays.HeneverleftEnglandagain.
OhingDarwindidn’tdoonthevoyageropouheory(orevenatheory)ofevolution.Forastart,evolutionasaceptwasalreadydecadesoldbythe1830s.Darwin’sowngrandfather,Erasmus,hadpaidtributetoevolutionaryprinciplesinapoemofinspiredmediocritycalled“TheTempleofNature”yearsbeforeCharleswasevenborn.Itwasn’tuntiltheyoungerDarwinwasbaEnglandahomasMalthus’sEssayonthePrincipleofPopulation(whichproposedthatincreasesinfoodsupplycouldneverkeepupwithpopulationgrowthformathematicalreasons)thattheideabegantopercolatethroughhismindthatlifeisaperpetualstruggleandthatnaturalselewasthemeansbywhiespeciesprosperedwhileothersfailed.SpecificallywhatDarwinsawwasthatallanismspetedforresources,andthosethathadsomeinnateadvantagewouldprosperandpassonthatadvaheiroffspring.Bysuchmeanswouldspeciestinuouslyimprove.
Itseemsanawfullysimpleidea—itisanawfullysimpleidea—butitexplainedagreatdeal,andDarreparedtodevotehislifetoit.“Howstupidofmenottohavethoughtofit!”T.H.HuxleycrieduponreadingOntheinofSpecies.Itisaviewthathasbeenechoedeversince.
Iingly,Darwindidn’tusethephrase“survivalofthefittest”inanyofhiswork(thoughhedidexpresshisadmirationforit).TheexpressionwasedfiveyearsafterthepublicationofOntheinofSpeciesbyHerbertSpenPrinciplesofBiologyin1864.
Nordidheemploythewordevolutioninprintuntilthesixtheditionin(bywhichtimeitsusehadbeetoowidespreadtoresist),preferringinstead“destwithmodification.”
Nor,aboveall,werehisclusionsinanywayinspiredbyhisnotig,duringhistimeintheGalápagosIslands,aingdiversityinthebeaksoffihestoryasventionallytold(oratleastasfrequentlyrememberedbymanyofus)isthatDarwin,whiletravelingfromislandtoisland,noticedthatthefinches’beaksoneachislandweremarvelouslyadaptedforexploitinglocalresources—thatononeislandbeaksweresturdyandshortandgoodforcragnuts,whileoislandbeakswereperhapslongandthinandwellsuitedforwinklingfoodoutofcrevices—anditwasthisthatsethimtothinkingthatperhapsthebirdshadnotbeeedthisway,buthadinasensecreatedthemselves.
Infact,thebirdshadcreatedthemselves,butitwasn’tDarwinwhonoticedit.AtthetimeoftheBeaglevoyage,DarwinwasfreshoutofcollegeandanaplishednaturalistandsofailedtoseethattheGalápagosbirdswereallofatype.ItwashisfriendtheornithologistJohnGouldwhorealizedthatwhatDarwinhadfoundwaslotsoffihdifferenttalents.Unfortunately,inhisinexperienceDarwinhadnotnotedwhichbirdscamefromwhichislands.(Hehadmadeasimilarerrorwithtortoises.)Ittookyearstosortthemuddlesout.
Becauseofthesehts,andtheosortthroughcratesandcratesoflespes,itwasn’tuntil1842,sixyearsafterhisreturntoEngland,thatDarwinfinallybegantosketchouttherudimentsofhisheory.Theseheexpaoa230-page“sketch”twoyearslater.Andthenhedidaraordinarythihisnotesawayandforthedecadeandahalfbusiedhimselfwithothermatters.Hefatheredtenchildreednearlyeightyearstowritinganexhaustiveopusonbarnacles(“Ihateabarnacleasnomaneverdidbefore,”hesighed,uandably,uponthework’sclusion),andfellpreytedisordersthatlefthimicallylistless,faint,and“flurried,”asheputit.Thesymptomsnearlyalwaysincludedaterriblenauseaandgenerallyalsoincorporatedpalpitations,migraines,exhaustion,trembling,spotsbeforetheeyes,shortnessofbreath,“swimmingofthehead,”and,notsurprisingly,depression.
Thecauseoftheillnesshasneverbeeablished,butthemostromantidperhapslikelyofthemanysuggestedpossibilitiesisthathesufferedfromChagas’sdisease,alingeringtropicalmaladythathecouldhaveacquiredfromthebiteofaBenchugabuginSouthAmerica.Amoreprosaicexplanationisthathisditionsyatieithercase,themiserywasnot.Oftenhecouldworkfornomorethaymiastretetimesnotthat.
Muchoftherestofhistimewasdevotedtoaseriesofincreasinglydesperatetreatments—icypluhs,dousingsinvinegar,drapinghimselfwith“electrics”thatsubjectedhimtosmalljoltsofcurrent.Hebecamesomethingofahermit,seldomleavinghishomei,DownHouse.Oneofhisfirstactsuponmovingtothehousewastoerectamirroroutsidehisstudywindowsothathecouldidentify,andifnecessaryavoid,callers.
Darwihistheorytohimselfbecausehewellkhestormitwouldcause.In1844,theyearhelockedhisnotesaway,abookcalledVestigesoftheNaturalHistoryofCreationrousedmuchofthethinkingworldtofurybysuggestingthathumansmighthaveevolvedfromlesserprimateswithouttheassistanceofadivior.Anticipaticry,theauthorhadtakencarefulstepstocealhisidentity,whichhekeptasecretfromevenhisclosestfriendsforthefortyyears.SomewonderedifDarwinhimselfmightbetheauthor.
OtherssuspectedPrinceAlbert.Infact,theauthorwasasuccessfulandgenerallyunassumingScottishpublishernamedRobertChamberswhoserelucetorevealhimselfhadapracticaldimensionasersonalone:hisfirmwasaleadingpublisherofBibles.VestigeswaswarmlyblastedfrompulpitsthroughoutBritainandfarbeyond,butalsoattractedagooddealofmorescholarlyire.TheEdinburghReviewdevotednearlyaireissue—eighty-fivepages—topullingittopieces.EvenT.H.Huxley,abelieverinevolution,attackedthebookwithsomevenom,unawarethattheauthorwasafriend.
2Darwin’smanuscriptmighthaveremainedlockedawaytillhisdeathbutforanalarmingblowthatarrivedfromtheFarEastintheearlysummerof1858intheformofapackettainingafriendlyletterfromayoungnaturalistnamedAlfredRusselWalladthedraftofapaper,OendencyofVarietiestoDepartIndefinitelyfromtheinalType,outliningatheoryofnaturalselethatwasunilysimilartoDarwijottings.
EvehephrasingechoedDarwin’sown.“Ineversawamorestrikingce,”
Darwinreflectedindismay.“IfWallacehadmymanuscriptsketchwrittenoutin1842,hecouldnothavemadeabettershortabstract.”
Wallacedidn’tdropintoDarwin’slifequiteasuedlyasissometimessuggested.
Thetwowerealreadycorresponding,andWallacehadmorethanonerouslysentDarwinspesthathethoughtmightbeofi.IntheprocessoftheseexgesDarwinhaddiscreetlywarnedWallacethatheregardedthesubjectofspeciescreationashisowory.“Thissummerwillmakethe20thyear(!)sinceIopenedmyfirstnote-book,onthequestionofho;inwhatwaydospecies&varietiesdifferfromeachother,”hehadwrittentoWallaetimeearlier.“Iamnowpreparingmyworkforpublication,”headded,eventhoughhewasn’treally.
Inanycase,WallacefailedtograspwhatDarwinwastryingtotellhim,andofcoursehecouldhavehathisowntheorywassonearlyidenticaltooDarwinhadbeenevolving,asitwere,fortwodecades.
Darlaanagonizingquandary.Ifherushedintoprinttopreservehispriority,hewouldbetakingadvantageofaniip-offfromadistantadmirer.Butifhesteppedaside,asgentlemanlyductarguablyrequired,hewouldlosecreditforatheorythathehadindepelypropounded.Wallace’stheorywas,byWallace’sownadmission,theresultofaflashofinsight;Darwin’swastheproductofyearsofcareful,ploddihodicalthought.Itwasallcrushinglyunfair.
Topoundhismisery,Darwin’syouson,alsonamedCharles,hadtractedscarletfeverandwascriticallyill.Attheheightofthecrisis,ohechilddied.Despitethedistraofhisson’sillness,DarwinfoundtimetodashoffletterstohisfriendsCharlesLyellandJosephHooker,tostepasidebutnotingthattodosowouldmeanthatallhiswork,“whateveritmayamountto,willbesmashed.”LyellandHookercameupwiththepromisesolutionofpresentingasummaryofDarwin’sandWallace’sideastogether.TheveheysettledonwasameetingoftheLinnaeanSociety,whichatthetimewasstrugglingtofinditswaybatofashionasaseatofstifienJuly1,1858,Darwin’s2Darwinwasohefewtoguesscorrectly.HehappeobevisitingChambersonedaywhenanadvancecopyofthesixtheditioigeswasdelivered.ThekeennesswithwhichChamberscheckedtherevisionswassomethingofagiveaway,thoughitappearsthetwomendidnotdiscussit.
andWallace’stheorywasunveiledtotheworld.Darwinhimselfwasnotpresent.Onthedayofthemeeting,heandhiswifewereburyingtheirson.
TheDarwin–resentationwasoneofseventhatevening—oheotherswasonthefloraofAngola—andifthethirtyorsopeopleintheaudiencehadahattheywerewitnessingthestifichighlightofthetury,theyshowednosignofit.Nodiscussionfollowed.Nordidtheeventattractmuoticeelsewhere.Darwincheerfullylaterhatonlyoneperson,aProfesshtonofDubliiohetersinprintandhisclusionwas“thatallthatwashemwasfalse,andwhatwastruewasold.”
Wallace,stillia,learhesemaneuveringslongaftertheevent,butwasremarkablyequableandseemedpleasedtohavebeenincludedatall.Heevenreferredtothetheoryforeverafteras“Darwinism.”MuchlessameoDarwin’sclaimofprioritywasaScottishgardenerrickMatthewwhohad,ratherremarkably,alsoeupwiththeprinciplesofnaturalsele—infatheveryyearthatDarwinhadsetsailintheBeagle.Unfortunately,MattheublishedtheseviewsinabookcalledNavalTimberandArboriculture,whichhadbeenmissednotjustbyDarwin,butbytheentireworld.
Matthewkickedupinalivelymanner,withalettertoGardener’sicle,whenhesawDarwingainieverywhereforahatreallywashis.Darologizedwithouthesitation,thoughhedidherecord:“IthinkthatnoonewillfeelsurprisedthatherI,norapparentlyanyothernaturalist,hasheardofMr.Matthew’sviews,sideringhowbrieflytheyaregiven,andtheyappearedintheAppendixtoaworkonNavalTimberandArboriculture.”
Wallatinuedforanotherfiftyyearsasanaturalistandthinker,occasionallyaverygoodoincreasinglyfellfromstificfavorbytakingupdubiousissuchasspiritualismandthepossibilityoflifeexistingelsewhereintheuniverse.Sothetheorybecame,essentiallybydefault,Darwin’salone.
Darwinneverceasedbeingtormentedbyhisideas.Hereferredtohimselfas“theDevil’sChaplain”andsaidthatrevealiheoryfelt“likefessingamurder.”Apartfromallelse,hekdeeplypainedhisbelovedandpiouswife.Evenso,hesettoworkatonceexpandinghismanuscriptintoabook-lengthwork.ProvisionallyhecalleditAnAbstractofanEssayontheinofSpeciesandVarietiesthroughNaturalSele—atitlesotepidaivethathispublisher,JohnMurray,decidedtoissuejustfivehundredcopies.Butoncepresehthemanuscript,andaslightlymorearrestingtitle,Murrayresideredandincreasedtheinitialprintrunto1,250.
OntheinofSpecieswasaeercialsuccess,butratherlessofacritie.Darwin’stheorypresewointractabledifficulties.ItneededfarmoretimethanLordKelvinwaswillingtocede,anditwasscarcelysupportedbyfossilevidence.Where,askedDarwin’smorethoughtfulcritics,werethetransitionalformsthathistheorysoclearlycalledfor?Ifnewspeciesweretinuouslyevolving,thenthereoughttobelotsofintermediateformsscatteredacrossthefossilrecord,buttherewerenot.
3Infact,therecordasitexistedthen(andforalongtimeafterward)showednolifeatallrightuptothemomentofthefamousCambrianexplosion.
3By1861,attheheightofthetroversy,justsuchevideurnedupwhenworkersinBavariafoundthebonesofanaarchaeopteryx,acreaturehalfwaybetweenabirdandadinosaur.(Ithadfeathers,butitalsohadteeth.)Itressiveandhelpfulfind,anditssignificemuchdebated,butasinglediscoverycouldhardlybesideredclusive.
ButnowherewasDarwin,withoutanyevidensistingthattheearlierseasmusthavehadabundantlifeandthatwejusthadn’tfoundityetbecause,forwhateverreason,ithadn’tbeenpreserved.Itsimplycouldherwise,Darwinmaintaihecaseatpresentmustremaininexplicable;andmaybetrulyurgedasavalidargumentagainsttheviewshereeained,”heallowedmostdidly,butherefusedtoeainaivepossibility.
Bywayofexplanationhespeculated—iivelybutincorrectly—thatperhapsthePrecambrianseashadbeentoocleartolaydownsedimentsandthushadpreservednofossils.
EvenDarwin’sclosestfrieroubledbytheblithenessofsomeofhisassertions.
AdamSedgwick,whohadtaughtDarwinatCambridgeandtakenhimonageologicaltourofWalesin1831,saidthebookgavehim“morepainthanpleasure.”LouisAgassizdismisseditaspoorjecture.EvenLyellcludedgloomily:“Darwioofar.”
T.H.HuxleydislikedDarwin’sinsistenhugeamountsofgeologicaltimebecausehewasasaltationist,whichistosayabelieverintheideathatevolutionarygeshappennotgraduallybutsuddenly.Saltationists(thewordesfromtheLatinfor“leap”)couldn’tacceptthatplicatedanscouldeveremergeinslowstages.Whatgood,afterall,isohofawingorhalfaneye?Suchans,theythought,onlymadeseheyappearedinafiate.
ThebeliefwassurprisinginasradicalaspiritasHuxleybecauseitcloselyrecalledaveryservativereligiousnotionfirstputforwardbytheEnglishtheologianWilliamPaleyin1802andknownasargumentfromdesign.Paleytehatifyoufoundapocketwattheground,evenifyouhadneverseensuchathingbefore,youwouldinstantlyperceivethatithadbeenmadebyanintelligey.Soitwas,hebelieved,withnature:itsplexityroofofitsdesigionowerfuloheeeury,anditgaveDarwintroubletoo.“Theeyetothisdaygivesmeacoldshudder,”heaowledgediertoafriend.Intheinhecededthatit“seems,Ifreelyfess,absurdinthehighestpossibledegree”thatnaturalselecouldproducesuinstrumentingradualsteps.
Evenso,andtotheunendingexasperationofhissupporters,Darwinnotonlyinsistedthatallgewasgradual,butinnearlyeveryeditionieppeduptheamountoftimehesupposednecessarytoallowevolutiontress,whichpushedhisideasincreasinglyoutoffavor.“Eventually,”acctothestistandhistorianJeffreySchwartz,“Darwinlostvirtuallyallthesupportthatstillremainedamongtheranksoffellownaturalhistoriansandgeologists.”
Ironically,sideringthatDarwincalledhisbookOntheinofSpecies,theohinghecouldn’texplainwashowspeciesinated.Darwin’sthegestedameismforhoeciesmightbeestrongerorbetterorfaster—inaword,fitter—butgavenoindicationofhowitmightthrowupanewspecies.AScottishengineer,FleemingJenkin,sideredtheproblemandnotedanimportantflawinDarwin’sargument.Darwinbelievedthatanybeneficialtraitthataroseinonegeionwouldbepassedontosubsequentgeions,thusstrengtheningthespecies.
Jenkinpoithatafavorabletraitinoneparentwouldn’tbeedominantinsucceedinggeions,butinfactwouldbedilutedthroughblending.Ifyoupourwhiskeyintoatumblerofwater,youdon’tmakethewhiskeystronger,youmakeitweaker.Andifyoupourthatdilutesolutionintoanlassofwater,itbeesweakerstill.Inthesameway,anyfavorabletraitintroducedbyoneparentwouldbesuccessivelywatereddownbysubsequentmatingsuntilitceasedtobeapparentatall.ThusDarwin’stheorywasnotarecipeforge,butforstancy.Luckyflukesmightarisefromtimetotime,buttheywouldsoonvanishuhegeneralimpulseteverythingbacktoastablemediocrity.Ifnaturalseleweretowork,somealternative,unsideredmeismwasrequired.
UnknowntoDarwinandeveryoneelse,eighthundredmilesawayinatranquilerofMiddleEuropearetiringmonknamedGregorMendelwasingupwiththesolution.
Mendelwasbornin1822toahumblefarmingfamilyinabackwateroftheAustrianempireinwhatisnowtheCzechRepublic.Schoolbooksorayedhimasasimplebutobservantprovincialmonkwhosediscoverieswerelargelyserendipitous—theresultofnotigsomeiingtraitsofiancewhilepaboutwithpeaplantsinthemonastery’skitgarden.Infact,Mendelwasatrainedstist—hehadstudiedphysidmathematicsattheOlmützPhilosophistituteandtheUyofVienna—andhebroughtstificdisciplioallhedid.Moreover,themoBrnowherehelivedfrom1843wasknownasalearnedinstitution.Ithadalibraryoftwentythousandbooksandatraditionofcarefulstifivestigation.
Beforeembarkingonhisexperiments,Mendelspenttreparinghistrolspes,sevenvarietiesofpea,tomakesuretheybredtrue.Then,helpedbytwofull-timeassistants,herepeatedlybredandcrossbredhybridsfromthirtythousandpeaplants.Itwasdelicatework,requiriakethemostexagpainstoavoidactalcross-fertilizationandtonoteeveryslightvariationinthegropearanceofseeds,pods,leaves,stems,andflowers.Mendelknewwhathewasdoing.
Heneverusedthewewasn’teduntil1913,inanEnglishmedicaldiary—thoughhedidihetermsdominantandrecessive.Whatheestablishedwasthateveryseedtaiwo“factors”or“elemente,”ashecalledthem—adominantoneandarecessiveone—andthesefactors,whenbined,producedpredictablepatternsofiance.
Theresultshevertedintoprecisemathematiulae.AltogetherMendelspeyearsontheexperiments,thenfirmedhisresultswithsimilarexperimentsonflowers,,andotherplants.Ifanything,Mendelwastoostifihisapproach,forwhenhepresentedhisfindingsattheFebruaryandMarchmeetingsoftheNaturalHistorySocietyofBrnoin1865,theaudienceofaboutfortylistenedpolitelybutwasspicuouslyunmoved,eventhoughthebreedingofplantswasamatterofgreatpractiteresttomanyofthemembers.
WhenMendel’sreportublished,heeagerlysentacopytothegreatSwissbotanistKarl-WilhelmvonN?geli,whosesupportwasmoreorlessvitalforthetheory’sprospects.
Unfortunately,N?gelifailedtoperceivetheimportanceofwhatMendelhadfound.HesuggestedthatMerybreedinghawkweed.MendelobedientlydidasN?gelisuggested,butquicklyrealizedthathawkweedhadherequisitefeaturesforstudyiability.
ItwasevidenttohimthatN?gelihadhepaperclosely,orpossiblyatall.Frustrated,Meiredfromiigatiabilityaherestofhislifegrowingoutstandiablesandstudyingbees,midsunspots,amongmuchelse.Eventuallyhewasmadeabbot.
Mendel’sfindingsweren’tquiteaswidelyignoredasissometimessuggested.HisstudyreceivedaglowiryintheEncyclopaediaBritannica—thenamoreleadingrecordofstificthoughtthannow—andwascitedrepeatedlyinanimportantpaperbytheGermanWilhelmOlbersFocke.IwasbecauseMendel’sideasirelysahewaterlineofstificthoughtthattheyweresoeasilyrecoveredwhentheworldwasreadyforthem.
Together,withoutrealizingit,DarwinandMendellaidthegroundworkforalloflifesthetwehtury.Darwinsawthatalllivingthingsareected,thatultimatelythey“tracetheirarytoasingle,onsource,”whileMendel’sworkprovidedthemeismtoexplainhowthatcouldhappewomencouldeasilyhavehelpedeachother.MendelownedaGermaionoftheinofSpecies,whichheisknowntohaveread,sohemusthaverealizedtheapplicabilityofhisworktoDarwin’s,yetheappearstohavemadenoeffetintoudDarwinforhispartisknowntohavestudiedFocke’siialpaperwithitsrepeatedrefereoMendel’swork,butdidn’tectthemtohisownstudies.
TheohingeveryohiuredinDarwin’sargument,thathumansaredesdedfromapes,didureatallexceptasonepassingallusion.Evenso,ittookleapofimaginatioheimplicationsforhumandevelopmentinDarwin’stheories,anditbecameaetalkingpoint.
TheshowdowncameonSaturday,June30,1860,atameetingoftheBritishAssociationfortheAdvaofSOxford.HuxleyhadbeeoattendbyRobertChambers,authorofVestigesoftheNaturalHistoryofCreation,thoughhewasstillunawareofChambers’setothattentioustome.Darwin,asever,wasabsent.ThemeetingwasheldattheOxfordZoologicalMuseum.Morethanathousandpeoplecrowdedintothechamber;hundredsmorewereturnedaeoplekhatsomethingbigwasgoingtohappen,thoughtheyhadfirsttowaitwhileaslumber-indugspeakernamedJohnWilliamDraperofNewYorkUybravelysloggedhiswaythroughtwohoursofintroductoryremarksoellectualDevel松语文学www.16sy.coM免费小说阅读
Elwin’ssageadvicewasignored,andOntheinofSpeciesbyMeansofNaturalSele,orthePreservationofFavouredRatheStruggleforLifeublishedinlateNovember1859,pricedatfifteenshillings.Thefirsteditionof1,250copiessoldoutonthefirstday.Ithasneverbeenoutofprint,andscarcelyoutoftroversy,inallthetimesibadgoingforamanwhoseprincipalotheriwasearthwormsandwho,butforasingleimpetuousdecisiontosailaroundtheworld,wouldveryprobablyhavepassedhislifeasananonymoustryparsonknownfor,well,foraihworms.
CharlesRobertDarwinwasbornonFebruary12,1809,1inShrewsbury,asedatemarkettowniMidlandsofEngland.Hisfatherrosperousandwell-regardedphysi.Hismother,whodiedwhenCharleswaso,wasthedaughterofJosiahWedgwood,ofpotteryfame.
Darwinenjoyedeveryadvantageofupbringing,buttinuallypainedhiswidowedfatherwithhislacklusteracademicperformance.“Youcarefornothingbutshooting,dogs,andrat-catg,andyouwillbeadisgracetoyourselfandallyourfamily,”hisfatherwroteinalinearlyalearsjustabouthereinanyreviewofDarwin’searlylife.Althoughhisinationwastonaturalhistory,forhisfather’ssakehetriedtostudymedieatEdinburghUybutcouldhebloodandsuffering.Theexperienceofwitnessingaiononaandablydistressedchild—thiswasinthedaysbeforeahetics,ofcourse—lefthimpermalytraumatized.Hetriedlawinstead,butfoundthatinsupportablydullandfinallymanaged,moreorlessbydefault,toacquireadegreeindivinityfromCambridge.
Alifeinaruralvicarageseemedtoawaithimwhenfromoutofthebluetherecameamoretemptingoffer.DarwinwasiosailonthenavalsurveyshipHMSBeagle,essentiallyasdinnerpanyforthecaptain,RobertFitzRoy,whoserankprecludedhissocializingwithaherthaleman.FitzRoy,whowasveryodd,choseDarwininpartbecausehelikedtheshapeofDarwin’sbetokehofcharacter,hebelieved.)DarwinwasnotFitzRoy’sfirstchoice,butgotthenodwhenFitzRoy’spreferredpaniondroppedout.
Fromatwenty-first-turyperspectivethetwomen’smoststrikingjoiurewastheir1Anauspiciousdateinhistory:onthesamedayiucky,AbrahamLinwasborn.
extremeyouthfulness.Atthetimeofsailing,FitzRoywasonlytwenty-three,Darwinjusttwenty-two.
FitzRoy’sformalassigwastochartcoastalwaters,buthishobby—passionreally—wastoseekoutevidenceforaliteral,bibliterpretationofcreation.ThatDarwinwastrainedfortheministrywastraltoFitzRoy’sdecisiontohavehimaboard.ThatDarwinsubsequentlyprovedtobenotonlyliberalofviewbutlessthanwholeheartedlydevotedtoChristianfualsbecameasourceoflastingfribetweenthem.
Darwin’stimeaboardHMSBeagle,from1831to1836,wasobviouslytheformativeexperienceofhislife,butalsoohem.Heandhiscaptainsharedasmall,whi’thavebeeneasyasFitzRoywassubjecttofitsoffuryfollowedbyspellsofsimmeriment.HeandDarwinstantlyengagedinquarrels,some“boninsanity,”asDarwinlaterrecalled.Ovoyagesteobeelancholyuakingsatthebestoftimes—thepreviouscaptainoftheBeaglehadputabulletthroughhisbrainduringamomentoflonelygloom—andFitzRoycamefromafamilywellknownforadepressiveinstinct.Hisuncle,VistCastlereagh,hadslithisthroatthepreviousdecadewhileservingascelloroftheExchequer.(FitzRoywouldhimselfitsuicidebythesamemethodin1865.)Eveninhiscalmermoods,FitzRoyprovedstrangelyunknowable.
DarwinwasastouolearnupontheclusionoftheirvoyagethatalmostatozRoymarriedayoungwomantowhomhehadlorothed.InfiveyearsinDarwin’spany,hehadnotoedatanattatoreveionedhername.
Iherrespect,however,theBeaglevoyagewasatriumph.Darwinexperiencedadventureenoughtolastalifetimeandaccumulatedahoardofspessuffittomakehisreputationandkeephimoccupiedforyears.Hefoundamagnifittroveofgiantafossils,includingthefiMegatheriumknowntodate;survivedalethalearthquakeinChile;discoveredanewspeciesofdolphin(whichhedutifullynamedDelphinusfitzroyi);ducteddiligentandusefulgeologivestigationsthroughouttheAndes;anddevelopedanewandmuch-admiredtheoryfortheformationofcoralatolls,whichsuggested,nottally,thatatollscouldnotformihanamillionyears—thefirsthintofhislong-standingattattotheextremeantiquityofearthlyprocesses.In1836,agedtwenty-seveurnedhomeafterbeingawayforfiveyearsandtwodays.HeneverleftEnglandagain.
OhingDarwindidn’tdoonthevoyageropouheory(orevenatheory)ofevolution.Forastart,evolutionasaceptwasalreadydecadesoldbythe1830s.Darwin’sowngrandfather,Erasmus,hadpaidtributetoevolutionaryprinciplesinapoemofinspiredmediocritycalled“TheTempleofNature”yearsbeforeCharleswasevenborn.Itwasn’tuntiltheyoungerDarwinwasbaEnglandahomasMalthus’sEssayonthePrincipleofPopulation(whichproposedthatincreasesinfoodsupplycouldneverkeepupwithpopulationgrowthformathematicalreasons)thattheideabegantopercolatethroughhismindthatlifeisaperpetualstruggleandthatnaturalselewasthemeansbywhiespeciesprosperedwhileothersfailed.SpecificallywhatDarwinsawwasthatallanismspetedforresources,andthosethathadsomeinnateadvantagewouldprosperandpassonthatadvaheiroffspring.Bysuchmeanswouldspeciestinuouslyimprove.
Itseemsanawfullysimpleidea—itisanawfullysimpleidea—butitexplainedagreatdeal,andDarreparedtodevotehislifetoit.“Howstupidofmenottohavethoughtofit!”T.H.HuxleycrieduponreadingOntheinofSpecies.Itisaviewthathasbeenechoedeversince.
Iingly,Darwindidn’tusethephrase“survivalofthefittest”inanyofhiswork(thoughhedidexpresshisadmirationforit).TheexpressionwasedfiveyearsafterthepublicationofOntheinofSpeciesbyHerbertSpenPrinciplesofBiologyin1864.
Nordidheemploythewordevolutioninprintuntilthesixtheditionin(bywhichtimeitsusehadbeetoowidespreadtoresist),preferringinstead“destwithmodification.”
Nor,aboveall,werehisclusionsinanywayinspiredbyhisnotig,duringhistimeintheGalápagosIslands,aingdiversityinthebeaksoffihestoryasventionallytold(oratleastasfrequentlyrememberedbymanyofus)isthatDarwin,whiletravelingfromislandtoisland,noticedthatthefinches’beaksoneachislandweremarvelouslyadaptedforexploitinglocalresources—thatononeislandbeaksweresturdyandshortandgoodforcragnuts,whileoislandbeakswereperhapslongandthinandwellsuitedforwinklingfoodoutofcrevices—anditwasthisthatsethimtothinkingthatperhapsthebirdshadnotbeeedthisway,buthadinasensecreatedthemselves.
Infact,thebirdshadcreatedthemselves,butitwasn’tDarwinwhonoticedit.AtthetimeoftheBeaglevoyage,DarwinwasfreshoutofcollegeandanaplishednaturalistandsofailedtoseethattheGalápagosbirdswereallofatype.ItwashisfriendtheornithologistJohnGouldwhorealizedthatwhatDarwinhadfoundwaslotsoffihdifferenttalents.Unfortunately,inhisinexperienceDarwinhadnotnotedwhichbirdscamefromwhichislands.(Hehadmadeasimilarerrorwithtortoises.)Ittookyearstosortthemuddlesout.
Becauseofthesehts,andtheosortthroughcratesandcratesoflespes,itwasn’tuntil1842,sixyearsafterhisreturntoEngland,thatDarwinfinallybegantosketchouttherudimentsofhisheory.Theseheexpaoa230-page“sketch”twoyearslater.Andthenhedidaraordinarythihisnotesawayandforthedecadeandahalfbusiedhimselfwithothermatters.Hefatheredtenchildreednearlyeightyearstowritinganexhaustiveopusonbarnacles(“Ihateabarnacleasnomaneverdidbefore,”hesighed,uandably,uponthework’sclusion),andfellpreytedisordersthatlefthimicallylistless,faint,and“flurried,”asheputit.Thesymptomsnearlyalwaysincludedaterriblenauseaandgenerallyalsoincorporatedpalpitations,migraines,exhaustion,trembling,spotsbeforetheeyes,shortnessofbreath,“swimmingofthehead,”and,notsurprisingly,depression.
Thecauseoftheillnesshasneverbeeablished,butthemostromantidperhapslikelyofthemanysuggestedpossibilitiesisthathesufferedfromChagas’sdisease,alingeringtropicalmaladythathecouldhaveacquiredfromthebiteofaBenchugabuginSouthAmerica.Amoreprosaicexplanationisthathisditionsyatieithercase,themiserywasnot.Oftenhecouldworkfornomorethaymiastretetimesnotthat.
Muchoftherestofhistimewasdevotedtoaseriesofincreasinglydesperatetreatments—icypluhs,dousingsinvinegar,drapinghimselfwith“electrics”thatsubjectedhimtosmalljoltsofcurrent.Hebecamesomethingofahermit,seldomleavinghishomei,DownHouse.Oneofhisfirstactsuponmovingtothehousewastoerectamirroroutsidehisstudywindowsothathecouldidentify,andifnecessaryavoid,callers.
Darwihistheorytohimselfbecausehewellkhestormitwouldcause.In1844,theyearhelockedhisnotesaway,abookcalledVestigesoftheNaturalHistoryofCreationrousedmuchofthethinkingworldtofurybysuggestingthathumansmighthaveevolvedfromlesserprimateswithouttheassistanceofadivior.Anticipaticry,theauthorhadtakencarefulstepstocealhisidentity,whichhekeptasecretfromevenhisclosestfriendsforthefortyyears.SomewonderedifDarwinhimselfmightbetheauthor.
OtherssuspectedPrinceAlbert.Infact,theauthorwasasuccessfulandgenerallyunassumingScottishpublishernamedRobertChamberswhoserelucetorevealhimselfhadapracticaldimensionasersonalone:hisfirmwasaleadingpublisherofBibles.VestigeswaswarmlyblastedfrompulpitsthroughoutBritainandfarbeyond,butalsoattractedagooddealofmorescholarlyire.TheEdinburghReviewdevotednearlyaireissue—eighty-fivepages—topullingittopieces.EvenT.H.Huxley,abelieverinevolution,attackedthebookwithsomevenom,unawarethattheauthorwasafriend.
2Darwin’smanuscriptmighthaveremainedlockedawaytillhisdeathbutforanalarmingblowthatarrivedfromtheFarEastintheearlysummerof1858intheformofapackettainingafriendlyletterfromayoungnaturalistnamedAlfredRusselWalladthedraftofapaper,OendencyofVarietiestoDepartIndefinitelyfromtheinalType,outliningatheoryofnaturalselethatwasunilysimilartoDarwijottings.
EvehephrasingechoedDarwin’sown.“Ineversawamorestrikingce,”
Darwinreflectedindismay.“IfWallacehadmymanuscriptsketchwrittenoutin1842,hecouldnothavemadeabettershortabstract.”
Wallacedidn’tdropintoDarwin’slifequiteasuedlyasissometimessuggested.
Thetwowerealreadycorresponding,andWallacehadmorethanonerouslysentDarwinspesthathethoughtmightbeofi.IntheprocessoftheseexgesDarwinhaddiscreetlywarnedWallacethatheregardedthesubjectofspeciescreationashisowory.“Thissummerwillmakethe20thyear(!)sinceIopenedmyfirstnote-book,onthequestionofho;inwhatwaydospecies&varietiesdifferfromeachother,”hehadwrittentoWallaetimeearlier.“Iamnowpreparingmyworkforpublication,”headded,eventhoughhewasn’treally.
Inanycase,WallacefailedtograspwhatDarwinwastryingtotellhim,andofcoursehecouldhavehathisowntheorywassonearlyidenticaltooDarwinhadbeenevolving,asitwere,fortwodecades.
Darlaanagonizingquandary.Ifherushedintoprinttopreservehispriority,hewouldbetakingadvantageofaniip-offfromadistantadmirer.Butifhesteppedaside,asgentlemanlyductarguablyrequired,hewouldlosecreditforatheorythathehadindepelypropounded.Wallace’stheorywas,byWallace’sownadmission,theresultofaflashofinsight;Darwin’swastheproductofyearsofcareful,ploddihodicalthought.Itwasallcrushinglyunfair.
Topoundhismisery,Darwin’syouson,alsonamedCharles,hadtractedscarletfeverandwascriticallyill.Attheheightofthecrisis,ohechilddied.Despitethedistraofhisson’sillness,DarwinfoundtimetodashoffletterstohisfriendsCharlesLyellandJosephHooker,tostepasidebutnotingthattodosowouldmeanthatallhiswork,“whateveritmayamountto,willbesmashed.”LyellandHookercameupwiththepromisesolutionofpresentingasummaryofDarwin’sandWallace’sideastogether.TheveheysettledonwasameetingoftheLinnaeanSociety,whichatthetimewasstrugglingtofinditswaybatofashionasaseatofstifienJuly1,1858,Darwin’s2Darwinwasohefewtoguesscorrectly.HehappeobevisitingChambersonedaywhenanadvancecopyofthesixtheditioigeswasdelivered.ThekeennesswithwhichChamberscheckedtherevisionswassomethingofagiveaway,thoughitappearsthetwomendidnotdiscussit.
andWallace’stheorywasunveiledtotheworld.Darwinhimselfwasnotpresent.Onthedayofthemeeting,heandhiswifewereburyingtheirson.
TheDarwin–resentationwasoneofseventhatevening—oheotherswasonthefloraofAngola—andifthethirtyorsopeopleintheaudiencehadahattheywerewitnessingthestifichighlightofthetury,theyshowednosignofit.Nodiscussionfollowed.Nordidtheeventattractmuoticeelsewhere.Darwincheerfullylaterhatonlyoneperson,aProfesshtonofDubliiohetersinprintandhisclusionwas“thatallthatwashemwasfalse,andwhatwastruewasold.”
Wallace,stillia,learhesemaneuveringslongaftertheevent,butwasremarkablyequableandseemedpleasedtohavebeenincludedatall.Heevenreferredtothetheoryforeverafteras“Darwinism.”MuchlessameoDarwin’sclaimofprioritywasaScottishgardenerrickMatthewwhohad,ratherremarkably,alsoeupwiththeprinciplesofnaturalsele—infatheveryyearthatDarwinhadsetsailintheBeagle.Unfortunately,MattheublishedtheseviewsinabookcalledNavalTimberandArboriculture,whichhadbeenmissednotjustbyDarwin,butbytheentireworld.
Matthewkickedupinalivelymanner,withalettertoGardener’sicle,whenhesawDarwingainieverywhereforahatreallywashis.Darologizedwithouthesitation,thoughhedidherecord:“IthinkthatnoonewillfeelsurprisedthatherI,norapparentlyanyothernaturalist,hasheardofMr.Matthew’sviews,sideringhowbrieflytheyaregiven,andtheyappearedintheAppendixtoaworkonNavalTimberandArboriculture.”
Wallatinuedforanotherfiftyyearsasanaturalistandthinker,occasionallyaverygoodoincreasinglyfellfromstificfavorbytakingupdubiousissuchasspiritualismandthepossibilityoflifeexistingelsewhereintheuniverse.Sothetheorybecame,essentiallybydefault,Darwin’salone.
Darwinneverceasedbeingtormentedbyhisideas.Hereferredtohimselfas“theDevil’sChaplain”andsaidthatrevealiheoryfelt“likefessingamurder.”Apartfromallelse,hekdeeplypainedhisbelovedandpiouswife.Evenso,hesettoworkatonceexpandinghismanuscriptintoabook-lengthwork.ProvisionallyhecalleditAnAbstractofanEssayontheinofSpeciesandVarietiesthroughNaturalSele—atitlesotepidaivethathispublisher,JohnMurray,decidedtoissuejustfivehundredcopies.Butoncepresehthemanuscript,andaslightlymorearrestingtitle,Murrayresideredandincreasedtheinitialprintrunto1,250.
OntheinofSpecieswasaeercialsuccess,butratherlessofacritie.Darwin’stheorypresewointractabledifficulties.ItneededfarmoretimethanLordKelvinwaswillingtocede,anditwasscarcelysupportedbyfossilevidence.Where,askedDarwin’smorethoughtfulcritics,werethetransitionalformsthathistheorysoclearlycalledfor?Ifnewspeciesweretinuouslyevolving,thenthereoughttobelotsofintermediateformsscatteredacrossthefossilrecord,buttherewerenot.
3Infact,therecordasitexistedthen(andforalongtimeafterward)showednolifeatallrightuptothemomentofthefamousCambrianexplosion.
3By1861,attheheightofthetroversy,justsuchevideurnedupwhenworkersinBavariafoundthebonesofanaarchaeopteryx,acreaturehalfwaybetweenabirdandadinosaur.(Ithadfeathers,butitalsohadteeth.)Itressiveandhelpfulfind,anditssignificemuchdebated,butasinglediscoverycouldhardlybesideredclusive.
ButnowherewasDarwin,withoutanyevidensistingthattheearlierseasmusthavehadabundantlifeandthatwejusthadn’tfoundityetbecause,forwhateverreason,ithadn’tbeenpreserved.Itsimplycouldherwise,Darwinmaintaihecaseatpresentmustremaininexplicable;andmaybetrulyurgedasavalidargumentagainsttheviewshereeained,”heallowedmostdidly,butherefusedtoeainaivepossibility.
Bywayofexplanationhespeculated—iivelybutincorrectly—thatperhapsthePrecambrianseashadbeentoocleartolaydownsedimentsandthushadpreservednofossils.
EvenDarwin’sclosestfrieroubledbytheblithenessofsomeofhisassertions.
AdamSedgwick,whohadtaughtDarwinatCambridgeandtakenhimonageologicaltourofWalesin1831,saidthebookgavehim“morepainthanpleasure.”LouisAgassizdismisseditaspoorjecture.EvenLyellcludedgloomily:“Darwioofar.”
T.H.HuxleydislikedDarwin’sinsistenhugeamountsofgeologicaltimebecausehewasasaltationist,whichistosayabelieverintheideathatevolutionarygeshappennotgraduallybutsuddenly.Saltationists(thewordesfromtheLatinfor“leap”)couldn’tacceptthatplicatedanscouldeveremergeinslowstages.Whatgood,afterall,isohofawingorhalfaneye?Suchans,theythought,onlymadeseheyappearedinafiate.
ThebeliefwassurprisinginasradicalaspiritasHuxleybecauseitcloselyrecalledaveryservativereligiousnotionfirstputforwardbytheEnglishtheologianWilliamPaleyin1802andknownasargumentfromdesign.Paleytehatifyoufoundapocketwattheground,evenifyouhadneverseensuchathingbefore,youwouldinstantlyperceivethatithadbeenmadebyanintelligey.Soitwas,hebelieved,withnature:itsplexityroofofitsdesigionowerfuloheeeury,anditgaveDarwintroubletoo.“Theeyetothisdaygivesmeacoldshudder,”heaowledgediertoafriend.Intheinhecededthatit“seems,Ifreelyfess,absurdinthehighestpossibledegree”thatnaturalselecouldproducesuinstrumentingradualsteps.
Evenso,andtotheunendingexasperationofhissupporters,Darwinnotonlyinsistedthatallgewasgradual,butinnearlyeveryeditionieppeduptheamountoftimehesupposednecessarytoallowevolutiontress,whichpushedhisideasincreasinglyoutoffavor.“Eventually,”acctothestistandhistorianJeffreySchwartz,“Darwinlostvirtuallyallthesupportthatstillremainedamongtheranksoffellownaturalhistoriansandgeologists.”
Ironically,sideringthatDarwincalledhisbookOntheinofSpecies,theohinghecouldn’texplainwashowspeciesinated.Darwin’sthegestedameismforhoeciesmightbeestrongerorbetterorfaster—inaword,fitter—butgavenoindicationofhowitmightthrowupanewspecies.AScottishengineer,FleemingJenkin,sideredtheproblemandnotedanimportantflawinDarwin’sargument.Darwinbelievedthatanybeneficialtraitthataroseinonegeionwouldbepassedontosubsequentgeions,thusstrengtheningthespecies.
Jenkinpoithatafavorabletraitinoneparentwouldn’tbeedominantinsucceedinggeions,butinfactwouldbedilutedthroughblending.Ifyoupourwhiskeyintoatumblerofwater,youdon’tmakethewhiskeystronger,youmakeitweaker.Andifyoupourthatdilutesolutionintoanlassofwater,itbeesweakerstill.Inthesameway,anyfavorabletraitintroducedbyoneparentwouldbesuccessivelywatereddownbysubsequentmatingsuntilitceasedtobeapparentatall.ThusDarwin’stheorywasnotarecipeforge,butforstancy.Luckyflukesmightarisefromtimetotime,buttheywouldsoonvanishuhegeneralimpulseteverythingbacktoastablemediocrity.Ifnaturalseleweretowork,somealternative,unsideredmeismwasrequired.
UnknowntoDarwinandeveryoneelse,eighthundredmilesawayinatranquilerofMiddleEuropearetiringmonknamedGregorMendelwasingupwiththesolution.
Mendelwasbornin1822toahumblefarmingfamilyinabackwateroftheAustrianempireinwhatisnowtheCzechRepublic.Schoolbooksorayedhimasasimplebutobservantprovincialmonkwhosediscoverieswerelargelyserendipitous—theresultofnotigsomeiingtraitsofiancewhilepaboutwithpeaplantsinthemonastery’skitgarden.Infact,Mendelwasatrainedstist—hehadstudiedphysidmathematicsattheOlmützPhilosophistituteandtheUyofVienna—andhebroughtstificdisciplioallhedid.Moreover,themoBrnowherehelivedfrom1843wasknownasalearnedinstitution.Ithadalibraryoftwentythousandbooksandatraditionofcarefulstifivestigation.
Beforeembarkingonhisexperiments,Mendelspenttreparinghistrolspes,sevenvarietiesofpea,tomakesuretheybredtrue.Then,helpedbytwofull-timeassistants,herepeatedlybredandcrossbredhybridsfromthirtythousandpeaplants.Itwasdelicatework,requiriakethemostexagpainstoavoidactalcross-fertilizationandtonoteeveryslightvariationinthegropearanceofseeds,pods,leaves,stems,andflowers.Mendelknewwhathewasdoing.
Heneverusedthewewasn’teduntil1913,inanEnglishmedicaldiary—thoughhedidihetermsdominantandrecessive.Whatheestablishedwasthateveryseedtaiwo“factors”or“elemente,”ashecalledthem—adominantoneandarecessiveone—andthesefactors,whenbined,producedpredictablepatternsofiance.
Theresultshevertedintoprecisemathematiulae.AltogetherMendelspeyearsontheexperiments,thenfirmedhisresultswithsimilarexperimentsonflowers,,andotherplants.Ifanything,Mendelwastoostifihisapproach,forwhenhepresentedhisfindingsattheFebruaryandMarchmeetingsoftheNaturalHistorySocietyofBrnoin1865,theaudienceofaboutfortylistenedpolitelybutwasspicuouslyunmoved,eventhoughthebreedingofplantswasamatterofgreatpractiteresttomanyofthemembers.
WhenMendel’sreportublished,heeagerlysentacopytothegreatSwissbotanistKarl-WilhelmvonN?geli,whosesupportwasmoreorlessvitalforthetheory’sprospects.
Unfortunately,N?gelifailedtoperceivetheimportanceofwhatMendelhadfound.HesuggestedthatMerybreedinghawkweed.MendelobedientlydidasN?gelisuggested,butquicklyrealizedthathawkweedhadherequisitefeaturesforstudyiability.
ItwasevidenttohimthatN?gelihadhepaperclosely,orpossiblyatall.Frustrated,Meiredfromiigatiabilityaherestofhislifegrowingoutstandiablesandstudyingbees,midsunspots,amongmuchelse.Eventuallyhewasmadeabbot.
Mendel’sfindingsweren’tquiteaswidelyignoredasissometimessuggested.HisstudyreceivedaglowiryintheEncyclopaediaBritannica—thenamoreleadingrecordofstificthoughtthannow—andwascitedrepeatedlyinanimportantpaperbytheGermanWilhelmOlbersFocke.IwasbecauseMendel’sideasirelysahewaterlineofstificthoughtthattheyweresoeasilyrecoveredwhentheworldwasreadyforthem.
Together,withoutrealizingit,DarwinandMendellaidthegroundworkforalloflifesthetwehtury.Darwinsawthatalllivingthingsareected,thatultimatelythey“tracetheirarytoasingle,onsource,”whileMendel’sworkprovidedthemeismtoexplainhowthatcouldhappewomencouldeasilyhavehelpedeachother.MendelownedaGermaionoftheinofSpecies,whichheisknowntohaveread,sohemusthaverealizedtheapplicabilityofhisworktoDarwin’s,yetheappearstohavemadenoeffetintoudDarwinforhispartisknowntohavestudiedFocke’siialpaperwithitsrepeatedrefereoMendel’swork,butdidn’tectthemtohisownstudies.
TheohingeveryohiuredinDarwin’sargument,thathumansaredesdedfromapes,didureatallexceptasonepassingallusion.Evenso,ittookleapofimaginatioheimplicationsforhumandevelopmentinDarwin’stheories,anditbecameaetalkingpoint.
TheshowdowncameonSaturday,June30,1860,atameetingoftheBritishAssociationfortheAdvaofSOxford.HuxleyhadbeeoattendbyRobertChambers,authorofVestigesoftheNaturalHistoryofCreation,thoughhewasstillunawareofChambers’setothattentioustome.Darwin,asever,wasabsent.ThemeetingwasheldattheOxfordZoologicalMuseum.Morethanathousandpeoplecrowdedintothechamber;hundredsmorewereturnedaeoplekhatsomethingbigwasgoingtohappen,thoughtheyhadfirsttowaitwhileaslumber-indugspeakernamedJohnWilliamDraperofNewYorkUybravelysloggedhiswaythroughtwohoursofintroductoryremarksoellectualDevel松语文学www.16sy.coM免费小说阅读
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