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INTHEEARLY1680s,atjustaboutthetimethatEdmondHalleyandhisfriendsChristopherWrenandRobertHookeweresettlingdowninaLondoncoffeehouseandembarkingonthecasualwagerthatwouldresulteventuallyinIsaaewton’sPrincipia,Henrydish’sweighingoftheEarth,andmanyoftheotherinspiredandendableuakingsthathaveoccupiedusformuchofthepastfourhundredpages,aratherlessdesirablemilestonewasbeingpassedontheislandofMauritius,faroutintheIndianOsomeeighthundredmilesofftheeastcoastofMadagascar.
There,somefottensailororsailor’spetwasharryingtodeaththelastofthedodos,thefamouslyflightlessbirdwhosedimbuttrustingnatureandlackofleggyzipmadeitaratherirresistibletargetforboredyoungtarsonshoreleave.Millionsofyearsofpeacefulisolationhadnotprepareditfortheerratiddeeplyunnervingbehaviorofhumanbeings.
Wedon’tknowpreciselythecircumstances,orevenyear,attendimomentsofthelastdodo,sowedon’tknowwhicharrivedfirst,aworldthattainedaPrincipiaorohadnododos,butwedoknowthattheyhappemoreorlessthesametime.Youwouldbehardpressed,Iwouldsubmit,tofierpairingofoccurreoillustratethedivineandfeloniousnatureofthehumanbeing—aspeciesanismthatiscapableofunpigthedeepestsecretsoftheheavenswhileatthesametimepoundingiin,fornopurposeatall,acreaturethatneverdidusanyharmandwasn’teveelycapableofuandingeredoingtoitaswedidit.Indeed,dodosweresospectacularlyshortoninsight,itisreported,thatifyouwishedtofindallthedodosinaviityyouhadonlytocateaosquawking,andalltheotherswouldwaddlealongtoseewhat.
Theindighepoordododidn’tendquitethere.In1755,someseventyyearsafterthelastdodo’sdeath,thedirectoroftheAshmoleanMuseuminOxforddecidedthattheinstitution’sstuffeddodowasbeingunpleasantlymustyandorderedittossedonabohisrisingdecisionasitwasbythistimetheonlydodoieuffedorotherwise.Apassingemployee,aghast,triedtorescuethebirdbutcouldsaveonlyitsheadandpartofonelimb.
Asaresultofthisandotherdeparturesfromonsense,wearenotirelysurewhatalivingdodowaslike.Wepossessmuchlessinformationthanmostpeoplesuppose—ahandfulofcrudedescriptionsby“uificvoyagers,threeorfouroilpaintings,andafewscatteredossements,”inthesomewhataggrievedwordsoftheeenth-turynaturalistH.E.Strid.AsStridwistfullyobserved,wehavemorephysicalevideneaseamonstersandlumberingsaurapodsthanwedoofabirdthatlivedintomoderntimesandrequirednothingofustosurviveexceptourabsence.
Sowhatisknownofthedodoisthis:itlivedonMauritius,lumpbutnottasty,andwasthebiggest-evermemberofthepigeonfamily,thoughbyquitewhatmarginisunknownasitsweightwasneveraccuratelyrecorded.ExtrapolationsfromStrid’s“ossements”andtheAshmolean’smodestremainsshowthatitwasalittleovertwoandahalffeettallandaboutthesamedistanbeaktiptobackside.Beingflightless,itheground,leavingitseggsandchickstragicallyeasypreyfs,dogs,andmonkeysbroughttotheislandbyoutsiders.Itrobablyextinctby1683andwasmostcertainlygoneby1693.Beyondthatweknowalmostnothingexceptofcoursethatwewillslikeagain.Weknownothingofitsreproductivehabitsa,whereitranged,whatsoundsitmadeintranquilityoralarm.Wedon’tpossessasingledodoegg.
Frombeginningtoendouracquaintahanimatedodoslastedjustseventyyears.Thatisabreathtakinglystyperiod—thoughitmustbesaidthatbythispointinourhistorywedidhavethousandsofyearsofpracticebehindusierofirreversibleeliminations.
Nobodyknowsquitehowdestructivehumanbeingsare,butitisafactthatoverthelastfiftythousandyearsorsowhereverwehavegoneanimalshaveteovanish,ionishinglylargenumbers.
InAmerica,thirtygeneraeanimals—someverylargeindeed—disappearedpracticallyatastrokeafterthearrivalofmodernhumansoibetweentenahousandyearsago.AltogetherNorthandSouthAmericabetweenthemlostaboutthreequartersoftheirbiganimalsohehunterarrivedwithhisflint-headedspearsandkeenanizationalcapabilities.EuropeandAsia,wheretheanimalshadhadlooevolveausefulwarinessofhumans,lostbetweenathirdandahalfoftheirbigcreatures.
Australia,forexactlytheoppositereasons,losthan95pert.
Becausetheearlyhunterpopulationswereparativelysmallandtheanimalpopulationstrulymoal—asmanyastenmillionmammothcarcassesarethoughttoliefrozeniundraofnorthernSiberiaalone—someauthoritiesthinktheremustbeotherexplanations,possiblyinvolvingclimategeorsomekindofpandemic.AsRossMacPheeoftheAmeriMuseumofNaturalHistoryputit:“There’snomaterialbeohuntingdangerousanimalsmoreoftenthanyouo—thereareonlysomanymammothsteaksyoueat.”Othersbelieveitmayhavebeenalmostcriminallyeasytocatdclobberprey.“InAustraliaandtheAmericas,”saysTimFlannery,“theanimalsprobablydidn’tknowenoughtorunaway.”
Someofthecreaturesthatwerelostweresingularlyspectacularandwouldtakealittlemanagingiftheywerestillaround.Imaginegroundslothsthatcouldlookintoanupstairswindow,tortoisesnearlythesizeofasmallFiat,monitorlizardstwelongbaskingbesidedeserthighwaysiernAustralia.Alas,theyaregoneandweliveonamuchdiminishedplaoday,acrossthewholeworld,onlyfourtypesofreallyhefty(ametriore)landanimalssurvive:elephants,rhinos,hippos,andgiraffes.Notfortensofmillionsofyearshaslifeohbeensodiminutiveandtame.
ThequestionthatarisesiswhetherthedisappearaheStoneAgeanddisappearanorerettimesareipartofasiinevent—whether,inshort,humansareilybadnewsforotherlivingthings.Thesadlikelihoodisthatwemaywellbe.
AcctotheUyofChicagopaleontologistDavidRaup,thebackgroundrateofextinohthroughoutbiologicalhistoryhasbeenonespecieslosteveryfouryearsonaverage.Acctoocalculation,human-causedextinnowmayberunningasmuchas120,000timesthatlevel.
Inthemid-1990s,theAustraliannaturalistTimFlannery,nowheadoftheSouthAustralianMuseuminAdelaide,becamestruckbyhowlittleweseemedtoknowaboutmains,includiivelyretones.“Whereveryoulooked,thereseemedtobegapsintherecords—piecesmissing,aswiththedodo,ornotrecordedatall,”hetoldmewhehiminMelbourneayearo.
FlanneryrecruitedhisfrieerSchouten,anartistandfellowAustralian,andtogethertheyembarkedonaslightlyobsessivequesttoscourtheworld’smajorcollestofindoutwhatwaslost,whatwasleft,andwhathadneverbeenknownatall.Theyspentfouryearspigthrougholdskins,mustyspes,olddrawings,andwrittendescriptions—whateverwasavailable.Schoutenmadelife-sizedpaintingsofeveryanimaltheycouldreasonablyre-create,andFlannerywrotethewords.TheresultwasaraordinarybookcalledAGapinNature,stitutiplete—and,itmustbesaid,moving—catalogofanimalextinsfromthelastthreehundredyears.
Forsomeanimals,recordsweregood,butnobodyhaddohingmuchwiththem,sometimesforyears,sometimesforever.Steller’sseacow,awalrus-likecreaturerelatedtothedugong,wasohelastreallybiganimalstogoextinct.Itwastrulyenormous—anadultcouldreagthsofnearlythirtyfeetaentons—butweareacquaihitonlybecausein1741aRussiaionhappeobeshipwreckedontheonlyplacewherethecreaturesstillsurvivedinanyheremoteandfoggyanderIslandsintheBeringSea.
Happily,theexpeditionhadanaturalist,GeSteller,whowasfasatedbytheanimal.
“Hetookthemostcopiousnotes,”saysFlannery.“Heevenmeasuredthediameterofitswhiskers.Theonlythinghewouldn’tdescribewasthemalegenitals—though,forsomereason,heyenoughtodothefemale’s.Heevensavedapieceofskin,sowehadagoodideaofitstexture.Weweren’talwayssolucky.”
TheohingStellercouldn’tdowassavetheseacowitself.Alreadyhuhebriin,itwouldbegoogetherwithiy-sevenyearsofSteller’sdiscoveryofit.Manyotheranimals,however,couldn’tbeincludedbecausetoolittleisknownaboutthem.
TheDarlingDownshoppingmouse,ChathamIslandsswan,AssionIslandflightlesscrake,atleastfivetypeseturtle,andmanyothersareforeverlosttousexceptasnames.
Agreatdealofextin,FlanneryandSchoutendiscovered,hasn’tbeencruelorwanton,butjustkindofmajesticallyfoolish.In1894,whenalighthousewasbuiltonalonelyrockcalledStephensIsland,iempestuousstraitbetweehandSouthIslandsofNewZealand,thelighthousekeeper’scatkeptbringinghimstralebirdsthatithadcaught.
ThekeeperdutifullysentsomespestothemuseuminWellington.Thereacuratrewveryexcitedbecausethebirdwasarelicspeciesofflightlesswrens—theonlyexampleofaflightlesspergbirdeverfoundanywhere.Hesetoffatoheisland,butbythetimehegottherethecathadkilledthemall.TwelvestuffedmuseumspeciesoftheStephensIslandflightlesswrehat.
Atleastwehavethose.Alltoooften,itturnsout,wearenotmuchbetteratlookingafterspeciesaftertheyhavegohanwewerebeforetheywent.TakethecaseofthelovelyCarolinaparakeet.Emeraldgreen,withagoldenhead,itwasarguablythemoststrikingaifulbirdevertoliveinNorthAmerica—parrotsdon’tusuallyventuresofarnorth,asyoumayhavenoticed—andatitspeakitexistedinvastnumbers,exceededonlybythepassengerpigeon.ButtheCarolinaparakeetwasalsosideredapestbyfarmersandeasilyhuntedbecauseitflockedtightlyandhadapeculiarhabitofflyingupatthesoundofgunfire(asyouwouldexpect),buttheurningalmostatoochefallenrades.
InhisclassicAmeriithology,writtenintheearlyeeury,CharlesWillsonPealedescribesanoccasioninwhichherepeatedlyemptiesashotgunintoatreeinwhichtheyroost:
Ateachsuccessivedischarge,thoughshowersofthemfell,yettheaffeofthesurvivorsseemedrathertoincrease;for,afterafewcircuitsaroundtheplace,theyagainalightednearme,lookingdownontheirslaughteredpanionswithsuifestsymptomsofsympathyand,asentirelydisarmedme.
Bytheseddecadeofthetwehtury,thebirdshadbeelesslyhuhatonlyafewremainedaliveincaptivity.Thelastone,namedInca,diedintheatiZooin1918(notquitefouryearsafterthelastpassengerpigeohesamezoo)andwasreverentlystuffed.AndwherewouldyougotoseepoorInow?Nobodyknows.Thezoolostit.
WhatisbothmostintriguingandpuzzlingaboutthestoryaboveisthatPealewasaloverofbirds,adidatetokilltheminlargenumbersforerreasonthanthatitiedhimtodoso.Itisatrulyastoundingfactthatfortheloimethepeoplewhoweremostintenselyiedintheworld’slivingthiheonesmostlikelytoextinguishthem.
Noonerepresehispositiononalargerscale(ineverysehanLionelWalterRothschild,thesedBaronRothschild.Softhegreatbankingfamily,Rothschildwasastrangeandreclusivefellow.HelivedhisentirelifeinthenurserywingofhishomeatTring,inBughamshire,usingthefurnitureofhischildhood—evensleepinginhischildhoodbed,thougheventuallyheweighedthreehundredpounds.
Hispassionwasnaturalhistoryandhebecameadevotedaccumulatorofobjects.Hesenthordesoftrainedmen—asmanyasfourhuatime—toeveryquarteroftheglobetoclamberovermountainsandhacktheirwaythroughjuhepursuitofnewspes—particularlythingsthatflew.ThesewerecratedorboxedupabacktoRothschild’sestateatTring,whereheandabattalionofassistantsexhaustivelyloggedandanalyzedeverythingthatcamebeforethem,produgastantstreamofbooks,papers,andmonographs—sometwelvehundredinall.Altogether,Rothschild’snaturalhistoryfactoryprocessedwellovertwomillionspesandaddedfivethousandspeciesofcreaturetothestificarchive.
Remarkably,Rothschild’scollegeffortswereherthemostextehemostgenerouslyfuheeeury.ThattitlealmostcertainlybelongstoaslightlyearlierbutalsoverywealthyBritishcolleedHughg,whobecamesopreoccupiedwithaccumulatingobjectsthathebuiltalargeogoingshipandemployedacrewtosailtheworldfull-time,pigupwhatevertheycouldfind—birds,plants,animalsofalltypes,andespeciallyshells.ItwashisunrivaledcolleofbarhatpassedtoDarwinandservedasthebasisforhisseminalstudy.
However,Rothschildwaseasilythemoststificcollectorofhisage,thoughalsothemrettablylethal,forinthe1890shebecameiedinHaerhapsthemosttemptinglyvulnerableenviroEarthhasyetproduced.MillionsofyearsofisolationhadallowedHawaiitoevolve8,800uniquespeciesofanimalsandplants.OfparticularioRothschildweretheislands’colorfulanddistinctivebirds,oftensistingofverysmallpopulationsinhabitiremelyspecifiges.
ThetragedyformanyHawaiianbirdswasthattheywerenotonlydistinctive,desirable,andrare—adangerousbinationiofcircumstances—butalsooftebreakiotake.Thegreaterkoafininnoemberofthehoneycreeperfamily,lurkedshylyintheopiesofkoatrees,butifsomeoateditssongitwouldabandonitscoveratondflydowninashowofwele.Thelastofthespeciesvanishedin1896,killedbyRothschild’sacecollectorHarryPalmer,fiveyearsafterthedisappearascousinthelesserkoafinch,abirdsosublimelyrarethatonlyonehaseverbeeheoforRothschild’scolle.AltogetherduringthedecadeorsoofRothschild’smostintensivecolleg,atleastninespeciesofHawaiianbirdsvanished,butitmayhavebeenmore.
Rothschildwasbynomeansaloneinhiszealtocapturebirdsatmoreorlessanycost.
Othersinfactweremoreruthless.In1907whenawell-knowncolleedAlansonBryanrealizedthathehadshotthelastthreespesofblackmamos,aspeciesofforestbirdthathadonlybeendiscoveredthepreviousdecade,hehatthenewsfilledhimwith“joy.”
Itwas,inshort,adifficultagetofathom—atimewhenalmostanyanimalersecutedifitwasdeemedtheleastbitintrusive.In1890,NewYorkStatepaidoutoveronehundredbountiesforeasternmountainliohoughitwasclearthatthemuch-harassedcreatureswereonthebriin.Rightupuntilthe1940smanystatestiopaybountiesforalmostanykindofpredatorycreature.WestVirginiagaveoutanannualcollegescholarshiptowhoeverbroughtideadpests—as”wasliberallyinterpretedtomeanalmostanythingthatwasn’tgrownonfarmsorkeptaspets.
PerhapsnothingspeaksmorevividlyforthestrangenessofthetimesthaeofthelovelylittleBa’swarbler.AnativeofthesouthernUates,thewarblerwasfamousforitsunusuallythrillingsong,butitspopulationnumbers,neverrobust,graduallydwiilbythe1930sthewarblervaogetheraunseenformanyyears.
Thenin1939,byhappycetwoseparatebirdihusiasts,inwidelyseparatedlocations,cameacrosslonesurvivorsjusttart.Theybothshotthebirds,andthatwasthelastthatwaseverseenofBa’swarblers.
TheimpulsetoexterminatewasbynomeansexclusivelyAmeri.InAustralia,bountieswerepaidoasmaniantiger(properlythethylae),adoglikecreaturewithdistinctive“tiger”stripesacrossitsbatilshortlybeforethelastonedied,forlornandnameless,inaprivateHobartzooin1936.GototheTasmaniaodayandasktoseethelastofthisspecies—theonlylargeivorousmarsupialtoliveintomoderntimes—andalltheyshohotographs.Thelastsurvivingthylaewasthrownoutwiththeweeklytrash.
Imentionallthistomakethepointthatifyouweredesigningananismtolookafterlifeinourlonelyos,tomonitorwhereitisgoingandkeeparecordofwhereithasbeen,youwouldn’tchoosehumanbeingsforthejob.
Buthere’saremelysalientpoint:wehavebeenchosen,byfateorProvidenceorwhateveryouwishtocallit.Asfaraswetell,wearethebestthereis.Wemaybeallthereis.It’sanunnervingthoughtthatwemaybethelivinguniverse’ssupremeachievementanditsworstnightmaresimultaneously.
Becausewearesoremarkablycarelessaboutlookingafterthings,bothwhenalivea,wehavenoidea—reallyall—abouthowmanythingshavediedoffpermaly,ormaysoon,ormaynever,andwhatrolelayedinanypartoftheprocess.In1979,inthebookTheSinkingArk,theauthorNormanMyerssuggestedthathumanactivitieswerecausingabouttwoextinsaweekonthepla.Bytheearly1990shehadraisedthefiguretosomesixhundredperweek.(That’sextinsofalltypes—plants,is,andsoonaswellasanimals.)Othershaveputthefigureevenhigher—towelloverathousandaweek.AUioof1995,oherhand,putthetotalnumberofkinsifourhundredyearsatslightlyunder500foranimalsandslightlyover650forplants—whileallowingthatthiswas“almostcertainlyaimate,”particularlywithregardtotropicalspecies.Afewinterpretersthinkmostextinfiguresaregrosslyinflated.
Thefactis,wedon’tknow.Don’thaveanyidea.Wedon’tknoestarteddoingmanyofthethingswe’vedone.Wedon’tknoearedhtnoworhowourpresentaswillaffectthefuture.Whatwedoknowisthatthereisonlyoneplaodoiton,andonlyonespeciesofbeingcapableofmakingasidereddifference.EdwardO.
WilsonexpresseditwithunimprovablebrevityinTheDiversityofLife:“Onepla,oneexperiment.”
Ifthisbookhasalesson,itisthatweareawfullyluckytobehere—andby“we”Imeaneverylivingthing.Toattainanykindoflifeinthisuniverseofoursappearstobequiteanachievement.Ashumanswearedoublylucky,ofcourse:Weenjoynotonlytheprivilegeofexistealsothesingularabilitytoappreciateitandeven,inamultitudeofways,tomakeitbetter.Itisatalentwehaveonlybarelybeguntograsp.
Wehavearrivedatthispositionofeminenastunninglyshorttime.Behaviorallymodernhumanbeings—thatis,peopleeakandmakeartandanizeplexactivities—haveexistedforonlyabout0.0001pertofEarth’shistory.Butsurvivingforeventhatlittlewhilehasrequiredanearlyeringofgoodfortune.
Wereallyareatthebeginningofitall.Thetrick,ofcourse,istomakesureweneverfindtheend.Andthat,almostcertainly,willrequireagooddealmorethanluckybreaks.松语文学www.16sy.coM免费小说阅读
There,somefottensailororsailor’spetwasharryingtodeaththelastofthedodos,thefamouslyflightlessbirdwhosedimbuttrustingnatureandlackofleggyzipmadeitaratherirresistibletargetforboredyoungtarsonshoreleave.Millionsofyearsofpeacefulisolationhadnotprepareditfortheerratiddeeplyunnervingbehaviorofhumanbeings.
Wedon’tknowpreciselythecircumstances,orevenyear,attendimomentsofthelastdodo,sowedon’tknowwhicharrivedfirst,aworldthattainedaPrincipiaorohadnododos,butwedoknowthattheyhappemoreorlessthesametime.Youwouldbehardpressed,Iwouldsubmit,tofierpairingofoccurreoillustratethedivineandfeloniousnatureofthehumanbeing—aspeciesanismthatiscapableofunpigthedeepestsecretsoftheheavenswhileatthesametimepoundingiin,fornopurposeatall,acreaturethatneverdidusanyharmandwasn’teveelycapableofuandingeredoingtoitaswedidit.Indeed,dodosweresospectacularlyshortoninsight,itisreported,thatifyouwishedtofindallthedodosinaviityyouhadonlytocateaosquawking,andalltheotherswouldwaddlealongtoseewhat.
Theindighepoordododidn’tendquitethere.In1755,someseventyyearsafterthelastdodo’sdeath,thedirectoroftheAshmoleanMuseuminOxforddecidedthattheinstitution’sstuffeddodowasbeingunpleasantlymustyandorderedittossedonabohisrisingdecisionasitwasbythistimetheonlydodoieuffedorotherwise.Apassingemployee,aghast,triedtorescuethebirdbutcouldsaveonlyitsheadandpartofonelimb.
Asaresultofthisandotherdeparturesfromonsense,wearenotirelysurewhatalivingdodowaslike.Wepossessmuchlessinformationthanmostpeoplesuppose—ahandfulofcrudedescriptionsby“uificvoyagers,threeorfouroilpaintings,andafewscatteredossements,”inthesomewhataggrievedwordsoftheeenth-turynaturalistH.E.Strid.AsStridwistfullyobserved,wehavemorephysicalevideneaseamonstersandlumberingsaurapodsthanwedoofabirdthatlivedintomoderntimesandrequirednothingofustosurviveexceptourabsence.
Sowhatisknownofthedodoisthis:itlivedonMauritius,lumpbutnottasty,andwasthebiggest-evermemberofthepigeonfamily,thoughbyquitewhatmarginisunknownasitsweightwasneveraccuratelyrecorded.ExtrapolationsfromStrid’s“ossements”andtheAshmolean’smodestremainsshowthatitwasalittleovertwoandahalffeettallandaboutthesamedistanbeaktiptobackside.Beingflightless,itheground,leavingitseggsandchickstragicallyeasypreyfs,dogs,andmonkeysbroughttotheislandbyoutsiders.Itrobablyextinctby1683andwasmostcertainlygoneby1693.Beyondthatweknowalmostnothingexceptofcoursethatwewillslikeagain.Weknownothingofitsreproductivehabitsa,whereitranged,whatsoundsitmadeintranquilityoralarm.Wedon’tpossessasingledodoegg.
Frombeginningtoendouracquaintahanimatedodoslastedjustseventyyears.Thatisabreathtakinglystyperiod—thoughitmustbesaidthatbythispointinourhistorywedidhavethousandsofyearsofpracticebehindusierofirreversibleeliminations.
Nobodyknowsquitehowdestructivehumanbeingsare,butitisafactthatoverthelastfiftythousandyearsorsowhereverwehavegoneanimalshaveteovanish,ionishinglylargenumbers.
InAmerica,thirtygeneraeanimals—someverylargeindeed—disappearedpracticallyatastrokeafterthearrivalofmodernhumansoibetweentenahousandyearsago.AltogetherNorthandSouthAmericabetweenthemlostaboutthreequartersoftheirbiganimalsohehunterarrivedwithhisflint-headedspearsandkeenanizationalcapabilities.EuropeandAsia,wheretheanimalshadhadlooevolveausefulwarinessofhumans,lostbetweenathirdandahalfoftheirbigcreatures.
Australia,forexactlytheoppositereasons,losthan95pert.
Becausetheearlyhunterpopulationswereparativelysmallandtheanimalpopulationstrulymoal—asmanyastenmillionmammothcarcassesarethoughttoliefrozeniundraofnorthernSiberiaalone—someauthoritiesthinktheremustbeotherexplanations,possiblyinvolvingclimategeorsomekindofpandemic.AsRossMacPheeoftheAmeriMuseumofNaturalHistoryputit:“There’snomaterialbeohuntingdangerousanimalsmoreoftenthanyouo—thereareonlysomanymammothsteaksyoueat.”Othersbelieveitmayhavebeenalmostcriminallyeasytocatdclobberprey.“InAustraliaandtheAmericas,”saysTimFlannery,“theanimalsprobablydidn’tknowenoughtorunaway.”
Someofthecreaturesthatwerelostweresingularlyspectacularandwouldtakealittlemanagingiftheywerestillaround.Imaginegroundslothsthatcouldlookintoanupstairswindow,tortoisesnearlythesizeofasmallFiat,monitorlizardstwelongbaskingbesidedeserthighwaysiernAustralia.Alas,theyaregoneandweliveonamuchdiminishedplaoday,acrossthewholeworld,onlyfourtypesofreallyhefty(ametriore)landanimalssurvive:elephants,rhinos,hippos,andgiraffes.Notfortensofmillionsofyearshaslifeohbeensodiminutiveandtame.
ThequestionthatarisesiswhetherthedisappearaheStoneAgeanddisappearanorerettimesareipartofasiinevent—whether,inshort,humansareilybadnewsforotherlivingthings.Thesadlikelihoodisthatwemaywellbe.
AcctotheUyofChicagopaleontologistDavidRaup,thebackgroundrateofextinohthroughoutbiologicalhistoryhasbeenonespecieslosteveryfouryearsonaverage.Acctoocalculation,human-causedextinnowmayberunningasmuchas120,000timesthatlevel.
Inthemid-1990s,theAustraliannaturalistTimFlannery,nowheadoftheSouthAustralianMuseuminAdelaide,becamestruckbyhowlittleweseemedtoknowaboutmains,includiivelyretones.“Whereveryoulooked,thereseemedtobegapsintherecords—piecesmissing,aswiththedodo,ornotrecordedatall,”hetoldmewhehiminMelbourneayearo.
FlanneryrecruitedhisfrieerSchouten,anartistandfellowAustralian,andtogethertheyembarkedonaslightlyobsessivequesttoscourtheworld’smajorcollestofindoutwhatwaslost,whatwasleft,andwhathadneverbeenknownatall.Theyspentfouryearspigthrougholdskins,mustyspes,olddrawings,andwrittendescriptions—whateverwasavailable.Schoutenmadelife-sizedpaintingsofeveryanimaltheycouldreasonablyre-create,andFlannerywrotethewords.TheresultwasaraordinarybookcalledAGapinNature,stitutiplete—and,itmustbesaid,moving—catalogofanimalextinsfromthelastthreehundredyears.
Forsomeanimals,recordsweregood,butnobodyhaddohingmuchwiththem,sometimesforyears,sometimesforever.Steller’sseacow,awalrus-likecreaturerelatedtothedugong,wasohelastreallybiganimalstogoextinct.Itwastrulyenormous—anadultcouldreagthsofnearlythirtyfeetaentons—butweareacquaihitonlybecausein1741aRussiaionhappeobeshipwreckedontheonlyplacewherethecreaturesstillsurvivedinanyheremoteandfoggyanderIslandsintheBeringSea.
Happily,theexpeditionhadanaturalist,GeSteller,whowasfasatedbytheanimal.
“Hetookthemostcopiousnotes,”saysFlannery.“Heevenmeasuredthediameterofitswhiskers.Theonlythinghewouldn’tdescribewasthemalegenitals—though,forsomereason,heyenoughtodothefemale’s.Heevensavedapieceofskin,sowehadagoodideaofitstexture.Weweren’talwayssolucky.”
TheohingStellercouldn’tdowassavetheseacowitself.Alreadyhuhebriin,itwouldbegoogetherwithiy-sevenyearsofSteller’sdiscoveryofit.Manyotheranimals,however,couldn’tbeincludedbecausetoolittleisknownaboutthem.
TheDarlingDownshoppingmouse,ChathamIslandsswan,AssionIslandflightlesscrake,atleastfivetypeseturtle,andmanyothersareforeverlosttousexceptasnames.
Agreatdealofextin,FlanneryandSchoutendiscovered,hasn’tbeencruelorwanton,butjustkindofmajesticallyfoolish.In1894,whenalighthousewasbuiltonalonelyrockcalledStephensIsland,iempestuousstraitbetweehandSouthIslandsofNewZealand,thelighthousekeeper’scatkeptbringinghimstralebirdsthatithadcaught.
ThekeeperdutifullysentsomespestothemuseuminWellington.Thereacuratrewveryexcitedbecausethebirdwasarelicspeciesofflightlesswrens—theonlyexampleofaflightlesspergbirdeverfoundanywhere.Hesetoffatoheisland,butbythetimehegottherethecathadkilledthemall.TwelvestuffedmuseumspeciesoftheStephensIslandflightlesswrehat.
Atleastwehavethose.Alltoooften,itturnsout,wearenotmuchbetteratlookingafterspeciesaftertheyhavegohanwewerebeforetheywent.TakethecaseofthelovelyCarolinaparakeet.Emeraldgreen,withagoldenhead,itwasarguablythemoststrikingaifulbirdevertoliveinNorthAmerica—parrotsdon’tusuallyventuresofarnorth,asyoumayhavenoticed—andatitspeakitexistedinvastnumbers,exceededonlybythepassengerpigeon.ButtheCarolinaparakeetwasalsosideredapestbyfarmersandeasilyhuntedbecauseitflockedtightlyandhadapeculiarhabitofflyingupatthesoundofgunfire(asyouwouldexpect),buttheurningalmostatoochefallenrades.
InhisclassicAmeriithology,writtenintheearlyeeury,CharlesWillsonPealedescribesanoccasioninwhichherepeatedlyemptiesashotgunintoatreeinwhichtheyroost:
Ateachsuccessivedischarge,thoughshowersofthemfell,yettheaffeofthesurvivorsseemedrathertoincrease;for,afterafewcircuitsaroundtheplace,theyagainalightednearme,lookingdownontheirslaughteredpanionswithsuifestsymptomsofsympathyand,asentirelydisarmedme.
Bytheseddecadeofthetwehtury,thebirdshadbeelesslyhuhatonlyafewremainedaliveincaptivity.Thelastone,namedInca,diedintheatiZooin1918(notquitefouryearsafterthelastpassengerpigeohesamezoo)andwasreverentlystuffed.AndwherewouldyougotoseepoorInow?Nobodyknows.Thezoolostit.
WhatisbothmostintriguingandpuzzlingaboutthestoryaboveisthatPealewasaloverofbirds,adidatetokilltheminlargenumbersforerreasonthanthatitiedhimtodoso.Itisatrulyastoundingfactthatfortheloimethepeoplewhoweremostintenselyiedintheworld’slivingthiheonesmostlikelytoextinguishthem.
Noonerepresehispositiononalargerscale(ineverysehanLionelWalterRothschild,thesedBaronRothschild.Softhegreatbankingfamily,Rothschildwasastrangeandreclusivefellow.HelivedhisentirelifeinthenurserywingofhishomeatTring,inBughamshire,usingthefurnitureofhischildhood—evensleepinginhischildhoodbed,thougheventuallyheweighedthreehundredpounds.
Hispassionwasnaturalhistoryandhebecameadevotedaccumulatorofobjects.Hesenthordesoftrainedmen—asmanyasfourhuatime—toeveryquarteroftheglobetoclamberovermountainsandhacktheirwaythroughjuhepursuitofnewspes—particularlythingsthatflew.ThesewerecratedorboxedupabacktoRothschild’sestateatTring,whereheandabattalionofassistantsexhaustivelyloggedandanalyzedeverythingthatcamebeforethem,produgastantstreamofbooks,papers,andmonographs—sometwelvehundredinall.Altogether,Rothschild’snaturalhistoryfactoryprocessedwellovertwomillionspesandaddedfivethousandspeciesofcreaturetothestificarchive.
Remarkably,Rothschild’scollegeffortswereherthemostextehemostgenerouslyfuheeeury.ThattitlealmostcertainlybelongstoaslightlyearlierbutalsoverywealthyBritishcolleedHughg,whobecamesopreoccupiedwithaccumulatingobjectsthathebuiltalargeogoingshipandemployedacrewtosailtheworldfull-time,pigupwhatevertheycouldfind—birds,plants,animalsofalltypes,andespeciallyshells.ItwashisunrivaledcolleofbarhatpassedtoDarwinandservedasthebasisforhisseminalstudy.
However,Rothschildwaseasilythemoststificcollectorofhisage,thoughalsothemrettablylethal,forinthe1890shebecameiedinHaerhapsthemosttemptinglyvulnerableenviroEarthhasyetproduced.MillionsofyearsofisolationhadallowedHawaiitoevolve8,800uniquespeciesofanimalsandplants.OfparticularioRothschildweretheislands’colorfulanddistinctivebirds,oftensistingofverysmallpopulationsinhabitiremelyspecifiges.
ThetragedyformanyHawaiianbirdswasthattheywerenotonlydistinctive,desirable,andrare—adangerousbinationiofcircumstances—butalsooftebreakiotake.Thegreaterkoafininnoemberofthehoneycreeperfamily,lurkedshylyintheopiesofkoatrees,butifsomeoateditssongitwouldabandonitscoveratondflydowninashowofwele.Thelastofthespeciesvanishedin1896,killedbyRothschild’sacecollectorHarryPalmer,fiveyearsafterthedisappearascousinthelesserkoafinch,abirdsosublimelyrarethatonlyonehaseverbeeheoforRothschild’scolle.AltogetherduringthedecadeorsoofRothschild’smostintensivecolleg,atleastninespeciesofHawaiianbirdsvanished,butitmayhavebeenmore.
Rothschildwasbynomeansaloneinhiszealtocapturebirdsatmoreorlessanycost.
Othersinfactweremoreruthless.In1907whenawell-knowncolleedAlansonBryanrealizedthathehadshotthelastthreespesofblackmamos,aspeciesofforestbirdthathadonlybeendiscoveredthepreviousdecade,hehatthenewsfilledhimwith“joy.”
Itwas,inshort,adifficultagetofathom—atimewhenalmostanyanimalersecutedifitwasdeemedtheleastbitintrusive.In1890,NewYorkStatepaidoutoveronehundredbountiesforeasternmountainliohoughitwasclearthatthemuch-harassedcreatureswereonthebriin.Rightupuntilthe1940smanystatestiopaybountiesforalmostanykindofpredatorycreature.WestVirginiagaveoutanannualcollegescholarshiptowhoeverbroughtideadpests—as”wasliberallyinterpretedtomeanalmostanythingthatwasn’tgrownonfarmsorkeptaspets.
PerhapsnothingspeaksmorevividlyforthestrangenessofthetimesthaeofthelovelylittleBa’swarbler.AnativeofthesouthernUates,thewarblerwasfamousforitsunusuallythrillingsong,butitspopulationnumbers,neverrobust,graduallydwiilbythe1930sthewarblervaogetheraunseenformanyyears.
Thenin1939,byhappycetwoseparatebirdihusiasts,inwidelyseparatedlocations,cameacrosslonesurvivorsjusttart.Theybothshotthebirds,andthatwasthelastthatwaseverseenofBa’swarblers.
TheimpulsetoexterminatewasbynomeansexclusivelyAmeri.InAustralia,bountieswerepaidoasmaniantiger(properlythethylae),adoglikecreaturewithdistinctive“tiger”stripesacrossitsbatilshortlybeforethelastonedied,forlornandnameless,inaprivateHobartzooin1936.GototheTasmaniaodayandasktoseethelastofthisspecies—theonlylargeivorousmarsupialtoliveintomoderntimes—andalltheyshohotographs.Thelastsurvivingthylaewasthrownoutwiththeweeklytrash.
Imentionallthistomakethepointthatifyouweredesigningananismtolookafterlifeinourlonelyos,tomonitorwhereitisgoingandkeeparecordofwhereithasbeen,youwouldn’tchoosehumanbeingsforthejob.
Buthere’saremelysalientpoint:wehavebeenchosen,byfateorProvidenceorwhateveryouwishtocallit.Asfaraswetell,wearethebestthereis.Wemaybeallthereis.It’sanunnervingthoughtthatwemaybethelivinguniverse’ssupremeachievementanditsworstnightmaresimultaneously.
Becausewearesoremarkablycarelessaboutlookingafterthings,bothwhenalivea,wehavenoidea—reallyall—abouthowmanythingshavediedoffpermaly,ormaysoon,ormaynever,andwhatrolelayedinanypartoftheprocess.In1979,inthebookTheSinkingArk,theauthorNormanMyerssuggestedthathumanactivitieswerecausingabouttwoextinsaweekonthepla.Bytheearly1990shehadraisedthefiguretosomesixhundredperweek.(That’sextinsofalltypes—plants,is,andsoonaswellasanimals.)Othershaveputthefigureevenhigher—towelloverathousandaweek.AUioof1995,oherhand,putthetotalnumberofkinsifourhundredyearsatslightlyunder500foranimalsandslightlyover650forplants—whileallowingthatthiswas“almostcertainlyaimate,”particularlywithregardtotropicalspecies.Afewinterpretersthinkmostextinfiguresaregrosslyinflated.
Thefactis,wedon’tknow.Don’thaveanyidea.Wedon’tknoestarteddoingmanyofthethingswe’vedone.Wedon’tknoearedhtnoworhowourpresentaswillaffectthefuture.Whatwedoknowisthatthereisonlyoneplaodoiton,andonlyonespeciesofbeingcapableofmakingasidereddifference.EdwardO.
WilsonexpresseditwithunimprovablebrevityinTheDiversityofLife:“Onepla,oneexperiment.”
Ifthisbookhasalesson,itisthatweareawfullyluckytobehere—andby“we”Imeaneverylivingthing.Toattainanykindoflifeinthisuniverseofoursappearstobequiteanachievement.Ashumanswearedoublylucky,ofcourse:Weenjoynotonlytheprivilegeofexistealsothesingularabilitytoappreciateitandeven,inamultitudeofways,tomakeitbetter.Itisatalentwehaveonlybarelybeguntograsp.
Wehavearrivedatthispositionofeminenastunninglyshorttime.Behaviorallymodernhumanbeings—thatis,peopleeakandmakeartandanizeplexactivities—haveexistedforonlyabout0.0001pertofEarth’shistory.Butsurvivingforeventhatlittlewhilehasrequiredanearlyeringofgoodfortune.
Wereallyareatthebeginningofitall.Thetrick,ofcourse,istomakesureweneverfindtheend.Andthat,almostcertainly,willrequireagooddealmorethanluckybreaks.松语文学www.16sy.coM免费小说阅读
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